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THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 
ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 


BY 

EINAR  AUGUST  HANSEN 

B.A.  St.  01  af  College.  1920 


THESIS 

SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS 
FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF  MASTER  OF  ARTS  IN  EDUCATION 
IN  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  ILLINOIS,  1922 


URBANA,  ILLINOIS 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL 


June  3* 1 92  2 


1 HEREBY  RECOMMEND  THAI'  THE  THESIS  PREPARED  UNDER  MY’ 

SUPERVISION  BY Einar  August  Hansen — 

ENTITLED.  The  Project  Method  of  Teaching  

Composition — — 

BE  ACCEPTED  AS  FULFILLING  THIS  PART  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 
THE  DEGREE  of  Master  of  Artg  in  Education  


Recommendation  concurred  in* 


Committee 


on 


Final  Examination* 


•Required  for  doctor’s  degree  but  not  for  master’s 


) r i 


* 


' 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I.  Page. 

The  History  cf  English  in  Secondary  Schools . . . , , . 1 

Changes  in  Emphasis  in  Subject  Matter- 
The  Three  Periods  with  Particular  Ideals  - 
Changes  in  Methods  of  Teaching, 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  Project  Method  in  English  Composition 11 

History  of  the  Term  - Project  Teaching  and 
Child  Learning  - Project  Teaching  Defined  -Project 
Definitions  - Kinds  of  Projects  - Testing  Chart  for 
Projects  - Development  of  a Project  - The  Advantages 
of  the  Project  Method  - The  Disadvantages  - In  Com- 
position Work  - Summary, 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  Application  of  the  Project  Method  to 

English  Composition  Teaching 48 

Grade  School  Projects:  Live  in  Virginia  - 

Where  in  the  United  States  Do  We  Get  Our  Food 
Supply?  - The  National  Fire  Prevention  Day  - 
High  School  Projects:  The  Employment  Lesson  - 

Chicago:  Cur  City  - Better  English  Week  - 


Page. 


College  Proj e ctjjj. 


The  St.  Olaf  College  Experiment. 


Bibliography 


75 


-1. 

CHAPTER  I 

The  History  of  the  Study  of  English  in  American 

m .W  - mm-  mo.  mjmm  mujmc  — — i imfclii  f i ■ i %•-  *2  ■«-«-■ 

Secondary  Schools . 

The  American  high  school  has  ceased  to  be  mainly  a pre- 
paratory school  for  students  intending  to  enter  college.  In 
achieving  this  end  it  is  realizing  the  original  aim  with 
which  it  replaced  the  old  academy.  This  school  too  began 
with  the  present  high  school’s  aim,  but  due  to  rapid  change 
of  conditions  it  gradually  narrowed  its  lines  in  response  to 
a demand  of  fitting  students  for  collegiate  work.  The  high 
school  began  as  the  "peoples’  college",  then  gradually  fol- 
lowed the  path  of  its  predecessor,  and  now  within  the  last 
two  decades  has  rapidly  come  into  its  own  field  in  gaining 
its  initial  goal.  After  more  than  half  a century  of  strug- 
gle, the  public  high  school  has  definitely  established  itself 
as  a continuation  of  common  school  instruction.  It  has  set 
itself  to  the  task  of  fitting  its  curriculum  to  satisfy  the 
demands  of  a wider  clientele. 

Agitation  for  reform  in  all  studies  of  these  schools  has 
not  left  the  English  courses  undisturbed.  It  was  not  until 
the  Harvard  College  Requirements  of  1874  that  any  sort  of 
English  study  except  English  Grammar  received  much  attention 
in  the  secondary  schools.  This  was  taught,  like  much  else  in 
these  schools  at  that  time,  mainly  as  formal  intellectual 
discipline,  not  a6  useful  knowledge  or  as  a means  of  attain- 
ing a specific  skill.  In  1875-74  the  Harvard  requirements  in 


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regard  to  English  read  as  follows:  "English  Compos iti on » 

Each  candidate  will  he  required  to  write  a short  English  com- 
position correct  in  spelling,  punctuation,  grammar,  and  ex- 
pression, the  subject  to  be  taken  from  such  works  of  stand- 
ard authors  as  shall  be  announced  from  time  to  time*  The  sub- 
jects for  1874  will  be  taken  from  one  of  the  following  works: 
Shakespeare’s  Tempest,  Julius  Caesar,  and  Merchant  of  Venice: 
Goldsmith’s  Vicar  of  Wakefield:  Scott’s  Ivanhoe,  and  Lay  of 
the  Last  Minstrel,"  "The  example  of  Harvard  was  followed  by 
other  colleges,  and  the  lead  thus  furnished  caused  important 
changes  in  the  English  courses  of  secondary  schools.  Clear- 
ness and  accuracy  of  written  expression  became  the  new  factors 
stressed,  with  English  grammar  given  a subordinate  position. 
Later  The  Commission  of  New  England  Colleges  on  Admission  Ex- 
aminations undertook  the  plan  of  formulating  from  year  to  year 
the  requirements  in  English.  The  custom  of  having  certain 
prescribed  masterpieces  of  English  literature  as  a basis  of 
tests  in  writing  was  followed  and  continued  firmly  establish- 
ed. After  twenty  years  with  these  ideals  predominating  a new 
element  appeared,  introduced  by  Yale  University  in  1894,  name- 
ly, knowledge  of  literary  masterpieces  for  their  own  sake. 

Since  then  this  new  aim  has  become  general  until  at  present 
it  finds  a place  as  one  of  the  important  aims  of  secondary 


1.  Bureau  of  Ed,,  Bulletin,  No.  2-  1917  quotation  from: 

Twenty  years  of  School  and  College  English  - Harvard  Univer- 
sity - 1896. 


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-2- 

echool  English  courses. 

The  college  admission  requirements  in  English  did  not 
become  uniform,  however,  until  after  some  agitation  of  the 
matter  which  culminated  in  1695.  A committee  appointed  to 
prepare  a report  on  the  subject  came  forward  with  the  follow- 
ing recommendations: 

"1.  That  any  examination  set  should  be  based  upon  the 
reading  of  certain  masterpieces  of  English  literature,  not 
fewer  in  number  than  those  at  present  recommended  by  The  Com- 
mission of  Colleges  in  New  England  on  Admission  Examinations. 

2m  That  certain  of  these  books  should  be  read  by  the 
candidate  as  literature,  and  that  others  - a limited  number  - 
should  be  carefully  studied  under  the  immediate  direction  of 
the  teacher. 

3.  That  each  of  the  whole  number  of  books  should  be  re- 
presentative, so  far  as  possible,  of  a period,  a tendency,  or 
a type  of  literature;  and  that  the  whole  number  of  works  se- 
lected for  any  year  should  represent  with  as  few  gaps  as  pos- 
sible, the  course  of  English  literature  from  the  Elizabethan 
period  to  the  present  time. 

4.  That  the  candidate’s  proficiency  in  composition 
should  be  judged  from  his  answers  to  the  questions  set,  which 
should  be  so  framed  as  to  require  answers  of  some  length  and 
to  test  his  power  of  applying  the  principles  of  composition. 

5.  That  formal  grammar  and  exercises  in  the  correction 
of  incorrect  English  should  in  no  case  be  more  than  a subor- 


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2 

dinate  part  of  the  examinations " . 

As  is  evident  throughout  the  main  idea  was  fitting  for 
college  entrance,,  "Like  the  preceding  commissions,  the  com- 
mittee on  college  entrance  requirements  made  a report  which 
tended  to  foster  a type  of  English  study  that  practically  ig- 
nored oral  composition  and  subjects  drawn  from  the  pupils* 

own  experiences,  and  that  constantly  applied  in  the  study  of 

3 

literary  masterpieces  formal  rhetorical  categories".  A reac- 
tion against  such  a type  of  study  with  the  methods  it  logical- 
ly seemed  to  employ  was  bound  to  come,  and  has  come  with  the 
wonderful  growth  of  the  high  schools  since  1900.  While  Eng- 
lish literature  has  remained  an  important  branch  of  the  work 
the  tendency  in  written  discourse  has  changed,,  Today  more  of 
the  child’s  experiences  are  being  utilized  as  fit  subject  mat- 
ter for  writing  than  formerly.  This  must  not  be  taken  to  mean 
that  such  material  for  composition  work  is  used  in  all  second- 
ary school  English  instruction,  for  even  at  present  writers 
cite  illustrations  of  other  contents  being  utilized.  Often 
the  literature  studied  forms  a basis  for  the  written  work. 
Within  this  narrower  field  current  practice  varies. 

Changes  in  Methods  of  Ins true t ion. 

The  foregoing  has  dealt  with  the  content  of  English 
study  for  the  last  fifty  years  with  a view  to  Bhowing  what 

2.  Cook,  A.  8.  A Summary  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Meetings 
of  the  Conference  on  Uniform  Entrance  Requirements  in  English 
1894-1899. 

3.  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  No.2r  1917.  page  15» 


-5- 

hae  been  emphasized  in  the  classroom  work.  Within  the  last 
two  decades  just  as  important  changes  have  come  about  in  the 
methods  of  teaching  English.  Some  secondary  schools  have  as* 
signed  the  study  of  literature  to  certain  years  of  the  course, 
and  composition  work  to  one  year.  Others  have  combined  the 
two  in  one  or  more  years,  and  have  reserved  certain  semesters 
for  literature  only. 

Often  the  work  in  both  literature  and  composition  clas- 
ses has  been  taught  by  the  old  method  of  assigning  so  many 
pages  in  a text  and  hearing  students  recite  at  the  next  meet- 
ing of  the  class.  So  have  students  been  quizzed  on,  and  sup- 
posedly taught,  rules  of  grammar,  ideas  of  unity,  coherence, 
and  emphasis,  rules  of  punctuation,  and  the  contents  of  clas- 
sics of  literature,  and  information  as  to  the  writers  of  such 
classics.  In  many  places  the  method  still  persists  with  a 
loss  to  all  engaged,  with  a gradual  dislike  for  the  whole  sub- 
ject of  English,  and  with  a sigh  of  relief  by  both  teachers 
and  pupils  when  the  grades  have  been  reported.  Many  teachers 
still  continue  assigning  such  theme  subjects  as:  Autumn 

Thoughts,  If  I were  a Girl  (or  Boy),  Vacation,  The  Vice  of 
Ambition,  "Principals  and  teachers  still  follow  the  routine 
that  tradition  has  passed  down,  choosing  the  way  that  seems 
safe  even  if  unsatisfactory  rather  than  making  an  effort  to 
find  out  the  elements  in  his  (the  pupil’s)  outside  activities 
that  appeal  to  the  pupil  and  to  apply  them  as  completely  as 


I 


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possible  to  the  activities  of  the  classroom". 

With  an  increasing  number  of  teachers,  happily  other  me- 
thods are  in  vogue0  With  greater  interest  in  the  learner 
rather  than  the  subject  taught  numerous  experiments  of  method 
have  been  tried  with  encouraging  results.  The  tendency  in  re- 
cent years  in  all  teaching  has  been  the  "pupil-doing"  move- 
ment. Behind  this  influence  and  furnishing  the  main  point  of 
attention  for  teachers  stand  the  interests  of  the  pupils 
which  supply  the  inner  urge  necessary  to  lead  the  children  to 
express  themselves,,  Boussea,u  and  Pestalozzi  in  the  eighteenth 
century  early  recognized  the  need  of  appealing  to  the  things 
in  child  life  which  most  absorb  the  learner*©  attention. 

Since  their  time  more  has  been  done  to  make  clearer  the  fact 
that  as  the  interests  of  pupils  govern  their  activity  outside 
of  school  they  should  be  considered  important  in  school.  In 
English  composition  this  has  manifested  itself  in  freeing  the 
students  from  all  artificial  conditions,  and  substituting  for 
these  real  audiences,  real  readers  beside  the  teacher,  writ- 
ing something  for  a specific  purpose  otherwise  than  as  a 
classroom  exercise.  The  aim  now  is  to  supply  such  conditions 
as  govern  the  genuine  act  of  writing  or  speaking  outside  of 
the  schoolroom.  The  change  has  been  made  from:  Have  I writ- 

ten thiB  to  satisfy  the  teacher’s  rules  of  punctuation  and 
grammar?  - to:  Will  John  know  just  what  happened?  The  me- 

thod will  be  recognized  as  one  which  places  greater  value  up- 


4,  Lasher,  George  S,  - The  Illinois  Association  of  Teachers 
of  English.  Bulletin  Vol.  XIII  No.  7,  page  1. 


. 


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. 


. 


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-7 


on  the  pupil* 8 satisfaction  with  the  work  produced  than  upon 
the  opinion  of  the  teacher  as  to  its  worth. 

The  socialized  recitation  has  been  evolved  by  many 
thoughtful  teachers  in  history,  geography,  literature,  and 
composition  to  enlist  the  increasing  cofiperation  and  intelli- 
gent fellowship  among  pupils.  It  has  been  discovered  that 
the  mastery  of  certain  kinds  of  subject  matter  by  the  indivi- 
dual is  made  easier  and  more  certain  through  activities  on 
the  part  of  the  pupils  that  can  be  termed  as  social.  One 
teacher  organizes  her  class  into  a literary  society,  at  the 
meetings  of  which  papers  are  read,  literary  selections  de- 
claimed, talks  or  reports  given;  where  the  pupils  conduct 
the  meetings  on  a parliamentary  basis,  electing  their  own 
officers,  conducting  their  own  business,  and  appointing  or 
choosing  committees.  Invitations  are  written  by  the  pupils 
asking  other  classes  to  the  programs,  posters  and  other  ad- 
vertising materials  are  designed.  Another  teacher  starts  a 
class  writing  a book  on  the  subject  "Our  Town  - the  Place  to 
Live”.  This  necessitates  committees  for  visiting  manufac- 
tory plants,  natural  scenes  of  beauty  and  parks;  others  for 
interviewing  town  officials,  calling  at  libraries,  museums, 
and  so  forth.  A class  studying  HThe  Lady  of  the  Lake"  made 
the  work  their  own  in  a unique  way.  The  pupils  formed  a 
newspaper  of  regular  size  by  gluing  articles  written  on  sub- 
jects taken  from  Scotch  life  on  large  sheets  of  paper.  The 
pupils  vied  with  one  another  in  securing  fitting  information; 
in  writing  what  they  had  to  contribute  in  suitable  and  at- 
tractive form,  and  in  advertising  the  work  among  the  other 


: 


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-8 


pupils,  The  pupils,  in  other  courses,  did  the  typewriting, 
decorating,  and  added  other  touches  to  make  the  job  as  com- 
plete as  possible.  And  so  illustrations  might  follow  of  simi- 
lar experiments,  many  more  to  be  found  than  have  been  report- 
ed in  current  writings.  In  all  uses  made  of  such  methods  the 
emphasis  has  been  placed  on  the  pupil  doing  his  written  work 
on  a subject  which  to  him  at  least  was  interesting  and  worth- 
while. 

These  efforts  have  all  had  their  shortcomings,  but  the 
general  opinion  of  the  teachers  who  have  made  them  has  been 
that  they  have  proved  a distinct  advance  over  the  old  method 
of  teaching  the  subject  of  English  composition.  Their  stu- 
dents have  often  learned  more  of  the  mechanice  of  writing, 
they  have  been  forced  to  think,  their  interest  has  been 
aroused,  they  have  come  to  believe  that  they  could  actually 
produce  something  worth  the  effort  expended,  and  they  have 
really  begun  to  like  English  composition. 

Summary 

Up  to  about  1876  there  was  scarcely  to  be  found,  in  the 
United  States,  any  definite,  well-organized  system  of  instruc- 
tion in  English.  Composition  and  rhetoric  had,  however,  teen 
well  established  by  that  time  in  all  the  American  colleges. 
Following  the  Harvard  Entrance  Requirements  of  1874  the  second- 
ary schools  began  in  earnest  the  teaching  of  English  always  in- 
fluenced in  what  they  should  teach  by  the  demands  of  the  col- 
leges. Professor  F.  N.  Scott  summarizes  the  history  of  Eng- 
lish study  in  the  nineteenth  century  in  the  United  States  in 
three  ideals.  First,  that  of  grammatical  correctness;  second. 


. 

, 

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-9- 


the  ideal  of  rhetorical  correctness;  third,  a familiarity 

with  and  appreciation  of  Englieh  literature.  "The  rapid 

widening  outlook  of  teachers  has  led  to  the  building  up  of  an 

ideal  more  stable  than  any  of  those  mentioned,  - the  ideal  of 

a well-balanced  course  of  instruction  in  the  language  and 

5 

literature  of  the  mother  tongue* " This  ideal  may  be  said  to 
be  the  aim  in  English  courses  in  our  secondary  schools  at  pre- 
sent. 

English  teaching  has  followed  the  changes  in  method 
which  have  affected  all  other  studies.  The  traditional,  for- 
mal, lesson-hearing  type  has  gradually  given  way  to  the  more 
natural  socialized  form  where  the  students  are  made  the  cen- 
ter of  attention.  Miss  Gertrude  Buck  indicates  this  change 
when  she  writes:  "Within  the  memory  almost  of  the  youngest 

English  teachers,  the  precepts  of  formal  rhetoric  as  a guide 
to  writing  have  been  discredited  and  abandoned,  the  acts  of 
composition  in  our  schools  has  been  conditioned  more  natural- 
ly by  a real  occasion  for  writing  and  a real  audience  to  be 
addressed,  such  theory  as  must  be  involved  in  the  criticism 
of  the  student’s  writing  has  grown  steadily  less  complex  and 
dogmatic  springing  more  directly  from  the  writing  itself;  in 
short,  the  tendency  of  every  recent  reform  has  been  to  free 
the  student’s  act  of  writing  from  all  artificial  conditions, 
and  to  substitute  for  such  conditions  as  accompany  a genuine 
act  of  writing  outside  the  schoolroom.  The  purpose  of  this 


5.  Carpenter,  G.  R.,  Baker,  F.  T. , and  Scott,  Fred  N.  - 
The  Teaching  of  English  - page  189,  New  York  1908. 


. 

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« 

« 

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-10 


substitution  has,  of  course,  been  purely  practical;  that, 
namely,  of  making  the  student’s  writing  thereby  fresher,  di- 

b 

recter,  and  more  spontaneously  effective"".  The  present  re- 
sult of  this  new  tendency  of  the  pupils  writing  in  units  of 
real  life  value  is  the  project  method  of  teaching. 


6 


Buck,  Gertrude,  Ed.  Review  1901,  Vol _»  22  - page  197. 


t , l 

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CHAPTER  II 


The  Project  Method  of  Teaching, 

A Historical  Statement  of  the  Project • 

Historically  the  word  "project"  has  been  used  for  many 
years  in  business  and  in  some  specialized  forms  of  education,, 
as  in  agriculture,  with  no  definite,  generally  accepted  mean- 
ing. The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  took  it  to 
mean  an  outlined  plan  for  carrying  on  a piece  of  cooperative 
work.  It  was  early  employed  by  R,  W.  Stimson,  who  used  the 
expression  "home  project"  in  the  agricultural  courses  of  the 
Massachusetts1  vocational  schools.  In  1908-1910  the  unmodi- 
fied word  "project"  was  used  by  Stimson,  Snedden,  Prosser  and 
Allen  in  their  report  to  the  Massachusetts*  Legislature. 

Since  this  use  in  Massachusetts  the  term  has  been  applied 
with  many  variations  of  meaning  to  an  increasing  number  of 
subjects  in  the  course  of  study. 

With  modifications  the  idea  behind  the  term  has  been  in 
use  for  some  time  in  such  fields  as  law,  medicine,  engineer- 
ing, journalism,  manual  training,  and  foreign  languages.  In 
various  informal  ways  the  concept  Mas  been  slowly  developing 
in  many  of  the  subjects  of  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary 
school,  the  high  school,  and  the  college. 

A brief  historical  sketch  of  the  term  by  Heald  as  used 
in  agriculture  may  be  accepted  as  authoritative: 

"For  many  years  the  term  * project*  has  been  used  to 
designate  carefully  planned  investigations  in  agricultural 


. 

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, 


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-12- 


science  covering  a considerable  period  of  time,  frequently 
demanding  several  years  for  their  completion.  Such  plans, 
including  aims  and  methods,  have  been  submitted  by  the  agri- 
cultural  experiment  stations  of  the  several  states  and  ap- 
proved by  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  in  the  United 
\ 

States  Relations  Service  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

"More  recently  the  same  terra  ’project’  under  practically 
the  same  conditions  has  been  applied  to  the  projects  in  de- 
monstration work  and  extension  teaching  carried  out  under  the 
Smith- Lever  Act.  The  term  carries  with  it  the  idea  of  a pro- 
gram of  importance,  of  3ome  tangible  and  valuable  results. 

"This  term  ’project*  was  borrowed  first  by  secondary 
school  teachers  of  science  and  manual  arts  because  its  use  by 
experiment  stations  suggested  an  idea  of  value  in  connection 
with  the  practical  phases  of  teaching  these  subjects. 

"In  connection  with  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  se- 
condary schools  the  idea  of  projects  at  home  crystalized  and 
took  on  the  name  of  ’home  project’  about  1908  in  Massachu- 
setts, receiving  the  sanction  of  the  State  Board  of  Education 
under  suitable  legislation  in  1911.  This  plan,  with  modifi- 
cations which  do  not  change  the  principal  points  of  the  de- 
finition, had  been  adopted  in  most  of  the  states  which  had 
constructive  legislation  on  agriculture  in  the  secondary 
schools  previous  to  the  enactment  of  the  Smi th-Hughes  Act. 

In  its  work  on  secondary  and  elementary  school  agriculture, 
the  United  States  department  of  Agriculture  had  previously 
accepted  the  prevailing  conception  of  the  home  project,  issu- 


, 


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7 


ing  several  publications  on  this  basis". 

Pro.lect  Teaching  and  Child  Learning . 

What  is  the  project  method  and  how  will  it  function  in 
the  teaching  of  English  composition? 

In  much  of  the  teaching  that  has  been  done  in  the  past 
the  child  has  generally  been  taken  at  the  beginning  stage  of 
his  experience  in  the  field  and  given  material  which  adults 
have  decided  he  ought  to  learn.  The  teacher  has  spent  his 
time  outside  of  school  carefully  selecting,  planning,  condens- 
ing and  organizing  material  to  be  presented  to  the  children 
the  next  recitation  hour.  The  reason  given  in  defense  of  this 
plan  has  been  that  it  will  save  time  for  the  pupil  to  get 
nothing  but  the  pure  gold  carefully  riddled  out  from  the  baser 
materials.  Yet  a moment's  reflection  on  the  things  which  an 
adult  really  has  learned  will  suffice  to  show  that  we  learn 
mainly  through  our  personal  experiences.  In  this  attempt  to 
be  logical  much  of  our  teaching  has  been  done  backwards  for 
it  is  contrary  to  the  ways  of  learning.  Mere  contact  with  or 
mechanical  repetition  and  memorization  of  organized,  logical 
material  does  not  insure  logical  grasp  and  logical  thinking. 

"To  select  a bundle  of  grain  separate  the  chaff  from  the 
wheat,  grind  and  pre- digest  the  kernels,  weigh  and  place  the 
food  in  a neatly  constructed  container,  all  ready  for  the  pu- 
pil to  carry  off,  - this  has  been  the  false  ideal  toward 
which  we  so  earnestly  strove  in  our  efforts  to  play  the  role 

7.  Stevenson,  J.  A.  The  Project  Method  of  Teaching  -from  a 

report  by  Heald,  F.  E.,  Bulletin  No.  21  Agricultural  Series  3 
page  7 Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Washington, 1918. 


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-14- 

of  education  and  distribute  to  the  hungering  multitude  what 

3 

we  thought  to  be  - Truth". 

Criticism  of  such  methods  of  teaching  implies  that  some- 
thing is  at  fault  with  the  better  aims  of  education.  If  pu- 
pils are  merely  to  absorb  as  much  information  as  possible  no 
more  need  be  said.  But  educational  writers  have  long  agreed 
that  information  for  its  own  sake  is  not  a satisfactory  end 
of  education.  Thus,  F.  M.  McMurry  writes: 

"Much  has  been  said  in  times  past  about  art  for  art* 3 
sake,  science  for  the  sake  of  science,  and  knowledge  for  the 
sake  of  knowledge;  but  these  are  vague  expressions  that  will 
excite  little  interest  so  long  as  the  worth  of  a man  is  de- 
termined by  what  comes  out  of  him,  by  the  service  he  renders  ® 
rather  than  by  what  enters  in.  Other  branches  of  knowledge 
used  for  educative  purposes,  therefore,  resemble  the  useful 

arts  in  the  recognition  of  their  bearings  on  man,  their  ac- 

9 

tual  use  as  the  goal  in  their  study". 

From  E.  C.  Moore  we  have  like  ideas  presented  when  he 
writes:  Learning  to  use  one’s  own  mind,  however,  in  such 

ways  that  he  will  go  on  using  it  to  advantage  as  long  as  he 


3.  Von  Hofe,  George  D,  Jr.,  "Development  of  a Project" 
Teachers  College  Record  17:24-46,  1916. 

9.  Stevenson,J.  A.  - The  Project  Method  of  Teaching  page  10 
quotation  from  McMurry,  F.M. , How  to  Study,  page  198  (Hew 
York  1909) 


-15- 

lives  is  the  one  great,  supreme  object  of  education.  Now 

that  psychology  has  defined  itself  as  the  study  of  behavior# 

education  must  follow  suit  by  conceiving  its  mission  as  that 

of  training  the  student  to  profitable  behavior,  that  is,  to 

do  things  that  the  situations  which  he  will  meet  in  life  call 

for.  Our  contention  is  that  these  social  doings  are  definite 

responses  to  concrete  situations,  and  that  the  learning  which 

will  fit  us  to  make  them  must  be  the  learning  of  definite  do- 

10 

ings,  not  that  vague  thing  which  is  called  general  training". 

It  is  quite  probable  that  good  teachers  have  always  used 
these  latter  aims  in  their  work.  More  has  been  done,  however, 
in  the  last  few  decades  than  at  any  other  time  to  have  methods 
embodying  these  aims  more  generally  practiced.  That  such  in- 
struction has  been  more  common  in  some  subjects  than  in  others 
is  quite  evident,  by  reason,  in  most  cases ,of  the  nature  of 
the  content  of  these  studies.  Where  manual  exercises  are  an 
important  part  of  the  work  in  the  subject,  the  development  of 
such  teaching  is  easy.  In  others  where  manual  activity  is 
absent  or  much  less  in  amount  this  form  of  instruction  has 
been  retarded  in  its  development. 

Among  the  most  recent  innovations  in  class  room  methods 
is  that  of  project  teaching  which  embodies  the  worthy  aims  of 
education  now  accepted.  Its  origin  has  not  been  a sudden  one, 
but  it  is  rather  the  culmination  of  a steady  growth. 


10.  Moore,  E.  C.  What  is  Education?  pp.  235  - 236 
(Chicago,  1916). 


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-16 


Project  Teaching  Defined. 

Method  in  the  classroom  instruction  means  the  combined 
activities  of  teacher  and  pupils.  The  project  method  is  a 
method  of  teaching  by  series  of  purposeful  units  of  pupil 
experience.  Contrary  to  having  the  teacher  do  all  the  ini- 
tiating, planning,  executing,  and  judging  of  the  work  done 
this  method  of  instruction  engenders  these  activities  in  the 
pupils,  A project  may  be  defined  in  various  ways  as  will  be 
shown  later,  but  the  present  writer  means  by  a project:  Any 

unit  of  experience  dominated  by  such  a purpose  as  sets  an  aim 

for  the  experience,  guides  its  process,  and  furnishes  the 

11 

drive  for  its  vigorous  prosecution.  Stated  more  briefly: 
a project  is  any  unit  of  purposeful  activity.  That  is,  it  is 
any  task  which  is  undertaken  consciously  because  some  need, 
usually  arising  in  a social  situation,  is  felt  by  the  pupil. 
With  the  emphasis  on  the  word  "purpose"  in  the  definition  it 
is  evident  that  projects  are  typical  unite  from  everyday 
life.  They  are  those  things  which  we  pro-ject  before  us  to 
engage  our  attention  and  enlist  our  efforts.  Suppose  a boy 
has  written  a letter  of  application  for  a position  in  an 
office.  If  he  did  in  hearty  fashion  purpose  to  write  the  let- 
ter, if  he  planned  it*  if  he  wrote  it  himself  - that  was  a 
project  for  the  boy.  For  him  it  was  a unit  of  wholehearted, 
purposeful  activity.  To  illustrate  further  - the  following 


11.  Kilpatrick,  William  H.  - "Dangers  and  Difficulties  of 
the  Project  Method  and  How  to  Overcome  Them  - A Symposium," 
Teachers  College  Record-September  1921. 


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-17- 

unit  as  adopted  by  this  class  became  their  project.  It  is 
quoted  here  in  full  to  illustrate  also  how  the  resourceful 
teacher  secures  projects* 

"A  newspaper  clipping  a few  months  ago  gave  rise  to  a 
simple  project  in  a school  located  in  a Michigan  city*  It 
told  how  a mother  and  her  fifteen  year  old  daughter  were 
hurrying  across  the  city  from  one  railway  station  to  another 
in  order  to  catch  a train  that  would  take  them  to  the  husband 
and  father  who  was  seriously  ill  at  their  home  in  the  South* 
The  taxi  in  which  they  were  riding  smashed  into  another  auto- 
mobile, and  as  a result  the  girl’s  left  arm  and  left  leg  were 
broken,  but  the  mother  escaped  with  only  a few  minor  bruises* 
The  girl  was  taken  to  a hospital  while  the  mother  continued 
her  journey  to  the  bedside  of  her  husband.  The  reporter  gave 
to  the  story  a touch  of  "heart  interest”  by  suggesting  the 
lonely  hours  the  young  girl  would  have  to  spend  in  a strange 
city,  far  away  from  her  family  and  friends. 

"The  teacher  read  the  clipping  without  comment  and 
started  to  turn  to  some  class  work  when  a boy  raised  his 
hand.  He  spoke  to  the  class  as  follows:  *1  don’t  know  how 

you  people  feel  about  it,  but  I think  we  ought  to  show  some 
interest  in  this  girl.  She  is  about  our  own  age,  maybe  she 
is  a sophomore  in  high  school  as  we  are.  Why  not  send  her 
some  flowers?*  Another  boy  suggested  that  something  to  eat 
would  be  better.  One  girl  stated  that  if  she  were  in  a simi- 
lar condition  she  would  want  books  and  magazines  to  read. 
Finally  a quiet,  thoughtful  girl  said:  *I*m  sure  this  girl 

would  appreciate  everything  that  has  been  suggested,  but  I 


. 


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-13 


believe  friendly  letters  would  make  her  feel  less  lonely 
than  anything.* 

HThere  was  instant  approval,  and  the  class  immediately 
voted  that  each  member  should  write  this  young  southern  girl 
a letter.  Plans  were  discussed  and  the  entire  problem  care- 
fully thought  out.  In  order  to  prevent  duplication  of  mater- 
ial it  was  decided  that  each  member  should  take  some  one  sub- 
ject that  would  be  likely  to  interest  the  girl  as  the  central 
theme  of  his  or  her  letter.  An  unusually  large  number  of  at- 
tractive subjects  were  listed  on  the  board,  and  members  of 
the  class  made  their  choice.  There  was  considerable  discus- 
sion over  just  what  really  makes  a letter  worth  while,  and 
the  teacher  read  several  to  show  how  various  well-known  wri- 
ters had  expressed  themselves  in  letters.  It  was  discovered 
that  ideas  as  well  as  incidents  and  descriptions  were  of  in- 
terest: in  fact  the  verdict  seemed  to  be  that  they  were  the 

most  interesting.  The  class  also  decided  that  as  they  would 
be  judged  by  this  girl  in  accordance  to  the  letters  sent  her 
each  letter  should  receive  the  approval  of  the  class.  It  was 
decided  to  send  but  two  letters  each  day,  so  that  they  would 
last  through  a considerable  portion  of  the  girl’s  confinement 
in  the  hospital.  Some  of  the  letters  were  approved  upon  their 
first  reading  to  the  class;  others  were  rewritten,  partially 
because  the  class  felt  they  were  not  as  interesting  as  they 
should  be;  some  were  ordered  to  be  rewritten  entirely.  In 
each  case  of  rewriting,  the  class  gave  definite,  constructive 
suggestions  to  help  the  pupil  produce  a more  worthy  effort. 

A committee  also  inspected  each  letter  to  see  that  the  punc- 


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12 

tuation  and  spelling  were  correct." 

This  situation  developed  into  a simple  project  which  was 
initiated  by  the  pupils,  planned  and  carried  out  by  them,  with 
all  difficulties  attendent  upon  the  progress  of  the  task 
solved  by  the  pupils.  The  oration  a pupil  writes  to  compete 
in  a contest  where  the  school  representative  i3  to  be  chosen, 
the  letter  another  writes  in  application  for  a position,  the 
news  item  written  for  the  local  newspaper  about  the  "all 
school  party"  are  only  a very  few  of  the  whole  host  of  pro- 
jects the  material  for  which  is  readily  found  in  the  everyday 
lives  of  children  and  adults. 

Project  Definitions 

It  seems  advisable  to  include  here  some  few  statements 
of  current  definitions  for  the  term  "project"  since  object- 
ions to  the  use  of  the  method  have  often  been  urged  on  the 
basis  of  one  somewhat  narrow  definition. 

Some  confusion  has  naturally  arisen  over  terminology, 
as  the  term  "project"  has  been  used  in  various  ways.  Aside 
from  a difference  in  emphasis  upon  some  part  of  the  defini- 
tion there  are  no  radical  differences  among  these  definitions. 
Dr.  Snedden  defines  it  thus:  "A  project  is  a unit  of  educa- 

tive work  in  which  the  most  prominent  feature  is  some  form 

13 

of  positive  or  concrete  achievement."  As  it  stands,  this 


12.  Lasher,  George  S,  - The  Illinois  Association  of  Teachers 
of  .English.  Bulletin  Volj_  XIII  No.  7.  pp.  8-9 

13.  Snedden,  David  - "The  Project  as  a Teaching  Unit";  School 
and  Society  4:419-423 


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-20 


definition  seems  to  imply  that  unless  there  is  material  result 
there  is  no  project.  Mr.  A.  J.  Kendall,  of  Pratt  Institute, 
gives  this  definition:  "A  school  project  is  a problem,  the  so- 
lution of  which  results  in  the  production  of  some  object  or 

knowledge  of  such  value  to  the  worker  as  to  make  the  labor  in- 

14 

volved  seem  to  him  worth  while."  Here  the  most  important  ele- 
ment is  the  attitude  which  the  worker  assumes,, 

Dr.  W.  H.  Kilpatrick  defines  the  project  as:  A whole- 

hearted, purposeful  activity  proceeding  in  a social  environ- 
15 

ment."  In  this  definition  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  indivi- 
dual, his  methods  of  work,  and  his  environment.  J.  A.  Steven- 
son lists  the  following  as  his  definition:  "A  project  is  a 

16 

problematic  act  carried  to  completion  in  its  natural  setting,,* 
Here  is  found  an  additional  emphasis  on  the  completion  of  the 
unit  and  has  the  problem  feature  important. 

In  the  teaching  of  English  literature  and  composition, 

J.  P.  Hosic  has  made  use  of  the  teriiio  The  following  gives  in 
detail  his  characterization: 

*'*  I understand  by  project  a complete  unit  of  experience. 

The  essential  aspects  or  elements  of  an  experience  are,  in  the 


14.  Kendall,  A.  J.  -Quoted  by  Minor,  Ruby  - "The  Supervision 
of  Project  Teaching"  - Bulletin  Emporia,  Kansas  State  Normal 
Scho^L^180 

15.  Kilpatrick,  William  H.  - "The  Project  Method".  -Teachers 
College  Bulletin  No.  5 - October  12,  1913. 


16,  Stevenson,  J.  A.  - The  Project  Method  (McMillan,  1921) 


t 


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-21 


simplest  form,  a situation  and  the  response  to  it.  This,  how- 
ever, will  not  describe  adequately  what  is  meant  by  the  type  of 
experience  called  complete.  Such  a unit  includes  the  follow- 
ing phases:  situation,  problem,  purpose,  plan,  criticism  of 

the  plan,  execution,  judgment  of  results,  appreciation.  This 
is,  of  course,  not  a chronological  order  strictly  speaking,  as 
a feeling  of  appreciation  will  spring  up  in  anticipation  of 
the  outcome,  while  on  the  other  hand,  purpose  persists  and  plan 
is  modified  to  the  very  end.  Negatively,  the  project  is  not 
to  be  confused  with  mere  problem,  with  motivation,  with  inci- 
dental learning,  with  correlation,  with  self-activity,  or  with 
the  idea  of  general  method  as  illustrated  by  the  Herbartian 
formal  steps’*.  To  understand  what  the  project  method  is  we 
have  only  to  go  out  into  life  and  study  any  case  of  purposeful 
living.  Perhaps,  then,  the  word  purposeful  should  be  added  to 
the  original  definition  of  a project  - a complete  unit  of  pur- 
poseful experience.  This  will  distinguish  the  project  method 
from  ordinary  habitual  reaction,  as  thinking,  planning,  criti- 
cizing, etc.,  are  essential.  I may  say  that  the  results  to 
flow  from  the  project  will  include  growth  in  initiative,  in 
power  to  think,  in  judgment  of  values,  and  in  appreciation, 
as  well  as  in  concentration  and  power  of  organization,  at  least 
within  the  range  of  specific  suggestions  in  which  the  exper- 
ience functions.  So  far  as  these  results  are  general  that 
result  will  be  secured  by  observing  the  laws  which  govern  the 


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17 

conditions  of  transfer** 

The  completion  of  the  project,  the  problem  factor,  and 
natural  setting  are  stressed  in  this  definition*  In  another 
summary,  the  author  indicates  that  the  project  is  "organiza- 
tion of  school  life  in  accordance  with  life  in  the  home  and 
community.** 

These  are  but  some  of  the  rather  larger  number  of  defini- 
tions for  "project**  that  are  at  present  to  be  found  in  a sur- 
vey of  literature  dealing  with  this  topic.  As  has  been  stated 
by  George  S*  Lasher  no  definition  is  entirely  satisfactory* 

Most  of  the  definitions  employ  words  which  themselves  have 
several  connotations . The  brief  definition  first  given,  that: 
a project  is  a unit  of  whole-hearted,  purposeful  activity, 
seems  most  acceptable  to  the  present  writer. 

A project  may  be  a large  unit  of  work  involving  the  ef- 
forts of  a large  group  of  individuals,  it  may  be  a smaller  unit 
involving  less  time  and  effort  with  small  or  large  groups  of 
people  engaged,  or  it  may  be  a specific  bit  of  work  simple  or 
complex  for  one  individual.  The  one  essential  of  any  project, 
no  matter  what  the  other  conditions  just  above  named,  is  that 
the  person  or  persons  engaged  must  be  working  whole-heartedly 
in  an  undertaking  for  which  there  has  been  felt  a need  and  for 
which  there  has  been  purposeful  planning.  "This  overemphasis 
upon  a special  field  tends  to  defeat  one  of  the  most  useful 


17.  Stevenson,  J.  A. , - The  Project  Method  of  Teaching 
(New  York  1921)  pp,  84-85  -(Quotation  from  a letter  sent  by 
Hosic,  J.  F.,  March  20,  1918* 


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purposes  of  the  project  method:  namely,  to  make  the  various 

18 

phases  of  school  work  ♦life-units1."  Adult  activity  in  daily 
experience  is  composed  of  various  projects  which  seem  to  favor 
one  or  more  of  these  definitions  from  their  narrower  point  of 
view.  However,  all  may  be  said  to  come  under  the  general  de- 
finition which  has  the  "purpose"  essential  prominent. 

Kinds  of  Projects. 

The  first  division  that  suggests  itself  when  one  takes 
into  account  kinds  of  projects  is  that  such  units  may  be  either 
simple  or  complex.  A simple  unit  is  one  which  develops  smooth- 
ly from  the  decision  by  the  pupil  to  engage  upon  it  to  the  exe- 
cution and  finish.  Complex  units  are  those  in  which  certain 
difficulties  arise  which  must  be  solved  as  the  project  is  com- 
pleted. Often  these  difficulties  take  the  form  of  smaller 
projects  and  their  claims  must  also  be  satisfied  before  the 
main  project  is  finished. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  persons  engaged  in  the  effort 
projects  are  of  two  kinds:  (a)  individual,  (b)  group.  Some 

group  projects  may  involve  individual  projects,  as  in  the  il- 
lustration of  the  letters  to  the  southern  girl  where  each  pu- 
pil’s letter  was  his  particular  project,  a distinct  part  of 
the  whole  class  or  group  project.  As  is  readily  seen  projects 
classed  in  this  way  may  be  either  simple  or  complex  in  nature. 

Projects  may  be  manual  or  intellectual,  or  their  develop- 
ment may  involve  both  of  these.  Thus  the  children  who  used 


16 . Minor,  Ruby  - "The  Supervision  of  Project  Teaching"  - 
Bulletin  Emporia,  Kansas  State  Normal  School,  1918. 


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-24 


Scott’s  "Lady  of  the  Lake"  as  a project  after  writing  their 
articles  on  Scottish  life  constructed  a rather  elaborate  news- 
paper which  required  typewriting,  advertising  posters,  draw- 
ings, color  work  for  decorations,  and  binding,.  Indeed,  if  the 
meaning  of  manual  be  narrowed  sufficiently  most  projects  would 
resolve  into  manual- intellectual.  The  two  types  of  projects 
are  recognized  by  Miss  Alice  Karackowizer  in  the  following  quo- 
tation: 

"There  are  various  types  of  projects.  One  of  these  types 
involves  mental  processes  alone,  without  manipulation  of  mater- 
ial and  without  the  necessity  of  outward  expression;  this  is 
the  problem  type.  It  goes  Y/ithout  saying  that,  while  this  type 
may  exist  by  itself,  it  is  not  likely  to  do  so  in  the  child’s 
world.  On  the  other  hand,  all  other  types  of  projects  include 

the  problem  type  in  so  far  as  they  are  not  merely  unconscious 
19 

responses . " 

Professor  William  H.  Kilpatrick  classifies  projects  into 
four  different  types  as: 

Type  I,  where  the  purpose  is  to  embody  some  idea  or  plan 
in  external  form,  as  writing  a letter,  writing  a play,  giving 
a play,  writing  an  article  for  the  school  paper,  organizing  a 
literary  society,  writing  a poem,  abstracting  a book,  and  giv- 
ing a declamation.  Type  2,  where  the  purpose  is  to  enjoy 
some  (esthetic)  experience,  as  listening  to  a story,  seeing  a 
drama,  or  reading  a novel.  Type  3,  where  the  purpose  is  to 


19.  Krackowizer,  Alice  M. , Projects  in  the  Primary  Grades, 
page  16  - Philadelphia  1919. 


o \ 


/ 


-25 


straighten  out  some  intellectual  difficulty,  as  to  ascertain 
what  the  expenses  will  he  for  constructing  the  stage  for  the 
school  play,  suggesting  in  an  article  to  the  town  newspaper 
improvements  for  the  city  park,  and  explaining  why  India  should 
he  given  her  freedom  by  England.  Type  4,  w;here  the  purpose  is 
to  obtain  some  item  or  degree  of  skill  or  knowledge,  as  learn- 
ing the  proper  use  of  punctuation  marks,  gaining  proficiency 
in  spelling  common  words,  acquiring  the  skill  in  handwriting 
equivalent  to  Grade  14  on  the  Thorndike  Scale,  and  learning  the 
proper  use  of  the  pronouns. 

As  the  present  writer  suggests,  it  is  evident  at  once  that 
these  groupings  show  considerable  overlapping,  and  that  one 
type  may  be  used  as  a means  to  bringing  another  one  to  comple- 
tion. Essentially  they  are  not  foreign  to  the  divisions  made 
earlier  under  this  subject  of  kinds  of  projects, and  are  listed 
by  Professor  Kilpatrick  with  the  following  view  in  mind; 

"The  value  of  such  a classification  as  that  here  given 

seems  to  me  to  be  in  the  light  it  should  throw  on  the  kind  of 

projects  teachers  may  expect  - and  on  the  procedure  that  nor- 

20 

mally  prevails  in  the  several  types, " 

Tea  ting_  Chart_  f o r^ro  j jec  t s , 

A fair  eummary  of  the  ideas  concerning  just  v/hat  consti- 
tutes a project  might  well  take  the  form  of  a simple  testing 
chart.  The  basis  for  determining  which  shall  be  utilized  and 
which  rejected,  includes  the  following  questions: 


20.  Kilpatrick,  William  H.,  "The  Project  Method"  - Teachers 
College  Bulletin,  No.  3-  October  1918^ 


, 


, 

. 

, 


, 


, 


. 


a 


-26- 

1.  If  a group  project  is  the  one  in  question,  does  it 
appeal  to  the  majority  of  the  group? 

2.  Is  it  of  sufficient  value  to  the  individual  to  en- 
able him  to  make  by  means  of  it  a distinct  contribution  to 
himself  or  to  the  group? 

3.  Does  it  open  up  to  the  individual  or  the  group,  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously,  visions  of  new  problems  to  be 
solved  and  projects  to  be  worked  out  in  consequence? 

4.  Does  it  help  illumine  some  phase  of  experience  or 
activity  worth  preserving  and  fixing  even  temporarily? 

5.  Does  it  help  lengthen  gradually  the  pupil’s  power  of 
sustained  attention? 

6.  Will  it  stimulate  and  strengthen  the  pupil’s  initia- 
tive, mental  activity,  cooperation,  self-reliance,  etc,? 

7.  Does  its  suggested  subsequent  development  seem  rea- 
sonably free  from  new  evils  which  might  counterbalance  its 
good  features? 

8.  Does  it  allow  both  the  best  and  average  pupils  an 
adequate  opportunity  for  maximum  effort? 

If  these  or  similar  questions  can  be  answered  in  the  af- 
firmative, the  project  bids  fair  to  succeed.  If  too  many  of 
these  must  be  answered  otherwise,  the  chances  are  that  some 
better  project  ought  to  be  found,  or  the  present  one  changed 
sufficiently  to  increase  its  general  worth.  Such  questions 
as  these  ought  to  form  themselves  at  once  in  the  mind  of  the 
teacher  both  in  her  own  planning  of  work  for  the  class  and  in 
guiding  the  suggestions  made  by  the  pupils.  With  more  mature 
pupils  seme  such  plan  of  procedure  might  be  given  them,  with 


, 


I 


. 

. 

. 

, 

. 


, 

, 

, 

, 


. 


-27- 


the  idea  that  they  use  it  in  considering  the  suitability  of 
21 

projects. 

Development  of  the  Project. 

The  project  makes  provisions  for  the  necessary  requi- 
sites for  thinking  outlined  by  Dewey.  "Every  recitation  in 
every  subject  gives  opportunity  for  establishing  cross  connec- 
tions between  the  subject  matter  of  the  lesson  and  the  wider 

and  more  direct  experiences  of  life 

Processes  of  instruction  are  unified  in  the  degree  in  whicjh 
they  center  in  the  production  of  good  habits  of  thinking, 
while  we  may  speak  without  error  of  the  method  of  thought,  the 
important  thing  is  that  thinking  is  the  method  of  an  educative 
experience.  The  essentials  of  method  are  therefore  identical 
with  the  essentials  of  reflection.  They  are  first,  that  the 
pupil  has  a genuine  situation  of  experience  - that  there  be 
a continuous  activity  in  which  he  is  interested  for  its  own 
sake;  secondly,  that  a genuine  problem  develops  within  this 
situation  as  a stimulus  to  thought; third,  that  he  possess  the 
information  and  make  the  observations  needed  to  deal  with  it; 
fourth,  that  suggested  solutions  occur  to  him  which  shall  be 
responsible  for  developing  in  an  orderly  way;  fifth,  that  he 
have  opportunity  and  occasion  to  test  his  ideas  by  application, 

to  make  their  meaning  clear  and  to  discover  for  himself  their 

22 

validity."  Pupil  planning  and  pupil-doing  give  opportunity 

21.  Krackowizer,  Alice  K.  Projects  in  the  Primary  Grades 
Philadelphis  1919. 

22.  Dewey,  John.  - Democracy  and  Education  - Rew  York  1917  - 
pp.  191-192. 


iii 


( 


» i 


t 


-28- 

for  thought  and  the  exercise  of  judgment. 

In  connection  y/ith  his  types  one  and  four,  Kilpatrick 
states  that  these  four  steps  of  development  have  been  suggest* 
ted  to  him;  purposing,  planning,  executing,  and  judging.  Num- 
ber three,  the  ordinary  problem  type,  has  the  four  steps  in  the 
logical  method  of  arriving  at  a.  solution  of  a problem;  (l)  de- 
finition of  problem;  (2)  collection  of  data;  (3)  hypothesis; 

(4)  verification.  As  yet  no  steps  have  been  outlined  for  type 
2 mentioned  by  Kilpatrick.  He  states  as  his  reason  for  includ- 
ing it  as  a type  of  project;  "the  factor  of  purpose  undoubtedly 

guides  the  process  and  -I  must  think  - influences  the  growth  of 
23. 

appreciation" . 

In  special  and  detailed  discussion  of  the  third  type  of 
project  Mr.  Mendel  E,  Branom  offers  some  brief  illustrations. 

It  is  also  evident  that  in  his  development  of  these  projects 
(he  calls  them  project- problems)  he  includes  Kilpatrick’s  four 
steps  within  his  own. 

"Illustration  one.  Preparatory  step:  Denmark  once  offer- 

ed to  sell  the  Danish  We st  Indies  to  the  United  States,  but  the 
United  States  refused  to  buy;  later,  the  United  States  wanted 
to  buy  the  islands,  but  Denmark,  under  German  influences,  re- 
fused to  sell.  In  1917  the  United  States  was  willing  to  buy 
and  Denmark  was  willing  to  sell.  The  United  States  purchased 
the  islands  for  $25, 000, 000. 

Problem  raised:  Are  the  Danish  West  Indies  worth  the  price? 


23.  Kilpatrick,  William  H.,  "The  Project  Method"  - Teachers 
College  Bulletin  No,  3 - October  1918-  page  17, 


. 


, 

, 


. 


. 


, 


. 

. 


, 

. 

, 


, ‘ : 


. 


-29- 

Materials  secured  and  interpreted:  The  islands  were  con- 

sidered from  the  standpoint  of  pastoral,  agricultural,  mining, 
fishing  and  manufacturing  possibilities,  from  the  standpoint 
of  their  strategic  location  in  guarding  the  eastermost  entrance 
to  the  Carribbean  Sea  and  the  Panama  Canal  Zone. 

Problem  Solved;  The  islands  are  worth  the  price  because 
of  their  strategic  importance  in  helping  the  United  States  to 
watch  over  its  interests  in  the  "American  Medi terranean" . 

Illustration  Two,  Preparatory  step:  From  a study  of  maps 
showing  the  distribution  of  agricultural  products  and  popula- 
tion in  Argentina,  it  was  found  that  over  three- fourths  of  the 
people  live,  and  over  three-fourths  of  the  agricultural  pro- 
ducts are  produced,  in  the  pampas  region. 

Problem  raised:  Account  for  the  dominating  importance  in 

Argentina,  of  the  pampas. 

Materials  secured  and  interpreted:  A consideration  of  fac- 
tors in  the  pampas,  favorable  for  agricultural  production, 
thus  accounting  for  its  absolute  importance,  was  made;  and  a 
study  of  limitations  imposed,  in  the  Gran  Chaco  region,  the 
Andean  foothills,  and  the  Patagonian  Plateau,  was  made  to  ac- 
count for  the  relative  importance  of  the  pampas. 

Problem  solved:  The  pampas  region  is  of  dominant  impor- 

tance because  of  its  favorable  location,  area,  topography, 

soils,  climate;  because  of  the  relatively  unfavorable  physical 

24 

factors  elsewhere". 


24,  Branom,  Mendel  E.  - The  Project  Method  in  Education 
Boston  1919  - pp.  165-166. 


. 


« 


l 


, 


; 


, 

. 


-30 


Carrying  out  these  steps  of  procedure  in  completing  a 
project  requires  that  one  have  access  to  various  sources  of 
material.  Some  simple  projects  require  relatively  little  in- 
formation outside  what  the  pupil  already  has,  and  in  such  the 
completion  of  the  work  unit  is  easy.  Others,  more  complex, 
often  take  the  individual  far  afield,  which  necessitates  some- 
times use  of  all  the  mediums  we  now  have  for  supplying  re- 
quired material.  For  project  work  in  English  the  pupils  must 
have  access  to  a good  library  in  charge  of  which  there  is  a 
librarian  competent  to  assist  immature  pupils  in  thorough  use 
of  the  sources  collected.  Such  a library  had  best  be  in  the 
school  building  or  on  the  school  grounds,  if  the  most  efficient 
work  is  to  be  done.  Close  at  hand,  in  the  English  recitation 
room  if  possible,  ought  to  be  dictionaries,  encyclopedias, 
other  reference  works  such  as  almanacs,  general  histories,  etc,, 
and  Poole’s  Index  to  Periodical  Literature.  There  ought  also 
to  be  within  easy  reach  maps  of  local  and  national  importance. 
Museums  are  also  of  infinite  value  for  use  in  certain  projects. 
"Teachers  lagging  in  the  rear  fail  to  see  the  good  teaching 
that  the  best  museums  are  doing  in  their  purposive  method, 
their  presentation  of  specimans,  and  their  silent  tuition  in 
the  form  of  lables  giving  not  only  names  and  classifications, 
but  also  detailed  accounts  of  the  history,  habitat,  life,  uses, 

and  value  of  specimans,  with  helpful  references  to  popular 
25 

books".  Daily  experiences  of  pupils  are  another  fruitful 


25.  Von  Hofe,  George  D.,  "The  Development  of  a Project" 
Teachers  College  Record  17:24-46,  1916. 


. 

. 


< 


. 


-31 


source  of  supply  for  project  work.  Student  problems  in  the 
school  and  on  the  campus,  in  connection  with  the  school  paper, 
student  finance,  vocational  ambitions,  and  attitude  toward 
phases  of  school  work,  community  activities  in  town  politics 
and  finance,  paving  and  lighting  problems,  town  beautification 
schemes,  and  other  communal  undertakings  offer  a great  deal  of 
material  for  project  work.  Newspapers,  government  reports  and 
other  bulletins  of  similar  nature,  railroad  and  other  company 
advertisements  may  in  many  cases  be  used  both  to  suggest  pro- 
jects and  supply  information  for  their  successful  prosecution. 

The  following  account  of  what  took  place  in  a sixth  grade 

class  in  the  Horace  Mann  School,  Columbia  University  shows  what 

can  be  done  in  this  matter  of  development:  "The  class  chooses 

a project,  something  that  has  attracted  attention  and  in  which 

they  (the  pupils)  are  vitally  interested.  The  teacher  then 

presents  the  information  to  follow  not  the  so-called  "logical" 

development  found  in  textbooks,  but  the  trend  of  thought of  the 
26 

pupils."  This  presentation  was  supplemented  by  popular  maga- 
zine readings  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  The  subject  was 
"Water."  The  teacher  went  through  the  Reader's  Guide  for 
articles  to  which  the  pupils  were  later  referred.  These  natur- 
ally were  divided  into  two  classes:  those  suitable  for  the  pu- 

pils, and  those  which  the  teacher  had  to  read  and  interpret 
for  them.  These  references  were  listed  in  somewhat  the  follow- 
ing manner: 


26.  Von  Hofe,  George  D.  "The  Development  of  a Project", 
Teachers  College  Record  17:24-46,  1916. 


, 

, 

, 

, 

, 


1 


. 

; 


. 


( 


-32- 

1.  "The  Nation’s  White  Coal"  - Outlook  103:338-9, 

February  15,  1913, 

Short  article  on  the  using  of  water-falls  in  place  of  coal. 
The  relation  of  the  governemnt  to  the  owners  of  water  plants, 

2,  "Water"  - By  E.  P.  Wrightman,  (Needs  to  be  interpreted 
by  teacher)  Popular  Science  Monthly  84  : 218-26  March  1914, 

The  condition  of  water  at  the  formation  of  the  earth;  the 
combination  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen;  the  physical  properties  of 
water.  Why  the  deserts  have  no  rain.  The  body  which  is  75$ 
water  requires  5.5  pounds  of  water  a day  for  sustenance.  A list 
of  foods  with  the  percentage  of  water  they  contain  is  given. 
Well-written,  popular,  few  technical  terms.  A resumfe  of  the 
physics  of  water. 

In  like  manner  other  articles  pertinent  to  the  subject  of 
the  project  were  arranged  and  described  for  the  pupils,  A set 
of  sixty  lantern  slides  on  "The  Wonderful  Work  of  Water"  bor- 
rowed from  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  was  also  used 
in  connection  with  the  discussion. 

All  school  material  bearing  on  problems  should  be  placed 
conveniently  for  the  use  of  the  pupils.  It  is  an  unnecessary 
waste  of  a pupil’s  time  to  give  vague  directions  as  to  where 
materials  can  be  secured.  It  may  be  necessary,  as  described 
above,  with  the  grade  school  pupils  to  list  definitely  the 
articles  of  value,  but  the  amount  of  such  help  can  gradually 
be  decreased  as  more  and  more  mature  pupils  are  engaged.  The 
solution  of  project-problems  does  not  mean  that  students  wander 
aimlessly  through  numerous  volumes,  accidentally  stumbling  upon 
pertinent  material.  The  significant  thing  is  not  that  general 


. 

. 

. 

. 


. 

( 

( 

• 

• 

« 

• 

( 

. 

i 

. 


. 

■ 

■ 

, 

. 


-33- 

material  shall  be  found,  but  that,  from  this  material  selec- 
tions shall  be  made  and  interpreted  to  meet  the  demands  of 
the  problems.  Pupils,  however,  should  be  encouraged  to  secure 
supplementary  material.  As  many  different  references  as  pos- 
sible should  be  secured.  Variety  rather  than  uniformity  should 
govern  in  the  selection  of  supplementary  material  for  such 
work.  Pupils,  reading  different  articles  will  be  differently 
stimulated,  and  will  come  to  class  expecting  to  make  actual 
contributions.  Through  the  cooperation  of  all  members  of  the 
class,  the  problems  should  be  solved  and  all  other  difficulties 
removed.  If  a pupil  is  engaged  in  an  individual  project  the 
same  general  principles  hold  true. 

The  Advantage s_ o f the  Project  Method . 

Current  Y/r  iters  who  have  experimented  with  the  project 
method  of  teaching  have  generally  been  very  emphatic  in  stating 
the  marked  success  of  their  attempts.  This  comment  applies 
more  to  teachers  in  the  actual  work  of  teaching  the  various 
subjects  of  the  elementary  and  high  schools  than  it  does  to  ex- 
perimenters in  the  field  of  educational  practice.  Frequently 
whole  lists  of  advantages  of  project  teaching  are  stated  by 
teachers  who  have  used  the  method  in  their  work.  These  though 
couched  in  different  terms  and  in  varied  arrangements  6how 
striking  similarity  in  the  benefits  teachers  find  in  such  a 
method.  In  discussing  his  project  "Chicago  -Cur  City", 

George  S.  Lasher  v/rites:  "Judged  from  the  teacher’s  point  of 

view,  the  project  was  a success.  In  the  first  place,  prac- 
tically every  pupil  took  an  interest  and  pride  in  what  he  wrote^ 
and  his  constant  effort  to  improve  his  chapter  by  revising  was 


. 

. 

. 

, 

• 

, 

, 

< 

. 

• 

. 

. 

. 

. 

. 


-54- 

satisfying  indeed.  The  by-products  were  particularly  valuable. 
The  oral  themes,  the  library  work,  the  drill  in  mechanics  and 
grammar,  the  organization  and  illustration  of  the  style  sheet, 
the  proof-reading,  and  the  business  letter  writing  connected 
with  the  project  all  had  definite  point  and  were  undertaken 
with  zest  because  of  the  purpose  behind  them.  More  than  this, 
however,  the  pupils  learned  how  to  attack  a real  problem,  how 
to  find  the  sources  of  knowledge,  and  how  to  make  use  of  them. 
They  also  gained  a sense  of  responsibility,  for  they  under- 
stood clearly  that  the  instructor  would  not  correct  their  er- 
rors, As  a result,  the  chapters  are  not  free  from  mistakes; 

but  they  are  honest,  not  careless  mistakes.  The  pupils  also 

27 

felt  the  satisfaction  of  contributing  to  their  school." 

These  comments  stated  in  a general  way  are  listed  by 
others  in  great  detail.  One  of  the  most  pointed  and  unique 
plans  used  in  getting  at  the  values  and  defects  of  project 
teaching  was  carried  out  by  R.  W.  Hatch,  teacher  of  history  in 
the  Horace  Mann  School  at  Columbia  University.  He  writes: 

"I  was  asked  to  speak  on  the  dangers  and  difficulties 
which  have  been  successfully  overcome  in  the  teaching  of  my 
classes  by  the  project  method  in  the  Horace  Mann  School.  These 
classes  are  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  years  of  our  senior  high 
school.  The  ninth  year  class  is  studying  modern  European  his- 


27.  lasher,  George  Star.  "The  Project  Method,  etc," 
Bulletin  Ho . 7-  Vol^  XIIIp  111! no is  As sociation  of  Teachers 
of  English.  April  1,  1921. 


< 


( 


t 


l 


. ' 


-35- 

tory  and  the  tenth  year  modern  problems.  These  pupils  are 
observed  daily  by  my  Teachers  College  class,  who  are  for  the 
most  part  experienced  teachers  of  history  and  civics. 

"The  more  I thought  of  the  topic  given  me  for  discussion 
the  more  I hesitated.  I realized  that  I might  be  considered 
a prejudiced  witness.  And  so  I resolved  to  shift  this  respon- 
sibility to  the  shoulders  of  my  students,  - both  those  who 

are  taking  the  course  in  the  Horace  Mann  School,  and  also  the 

• - 

observers  from  Teachers  College.  And  so  I asked  these  two 
groups  to  give  careful  thought  to  this  question:  "What  do 

you  oonsider  to  be  the  good  and  bad  features  of  the  project 
method?"  The  answers  in  all  cases  but  one  were  handed  in 
without  any  names  attached.  From  the  replies  I have  listed 
the  following  items,  avoiding  unnecessary  repetitions,  but 
giving  in  their  own  words  their  testimony,  for  and  against  the 
project  method  as  I have  interpreted  it  in  my  teaching  pro- 
cedure with  them. 

"I  will  first  give  the  answers  of  the  Horace  Mann  pupils. 
In  nearly  every  instance  there  was  a majority  vote  of  the 
class  favoring  the  statement  as  given: 

Good  Features. 

1.  We  have  overcome  the  difficulty  of  getting  enough 
references  by  going  to  many  different  sources  for  material  so 
everyone  may  be  prepared  each  day. 

2.  We  learn  how  to  organize  material  for  ourselves  and 
do  not  have  everything  prepared  for  us  by  the  teacher. 

3.  We  do  our  arguing  and  discussing  on  the  basis  of 
’light,  not  heat,’  and  are  becoming  more  broad-minded. 


. 

. 


( 


. 


* 


,, 

. 

. 

' , 


-36- 

4.  We  learn  more  lasting  information  because  we  have 
rooted,  it  out  for  ourselves. 

5.  It  trains  us  logically,  to  think  clearly,  and  to  get 
our  ideas  over  to  the  class. 

6.  The  pupils  have  attained  an  independent  attitude  of 
studying  and  we  are  getting  along  much  faster. 

7.  Our  discussions  are  usually  the  most  helpful  part  of 
our  lessons. 

8.  Getting  and  putting  things  together  from  the  library 
has  helped  us  a very  great  deal,  not  only  in  history  but  in 
everything. 

9.  Our  interest  in  current  literature  has  been  stimu- 
lated. 

10.  We  learn  how  to  do  things,  how  to  work  out  our  own 
problems. 

11.  We  learn  to  thrash  out  questions  for  ourselves,  in- 
stead of  relying  on  our  textbooks. 

12.  The  pupil3  are  more  interested  and  will  work  harder. 

They  will  remember  what  they  learn  because  they  choose  the  sub- 
ject and  build  it  up  themselves...... 

HFrom  the  answers  handed  in  to  me  by  my  observers  from 
Teachers  College,  who  have  followed  the  work  daily  from  the 
beginning  of  the  spring  term,  the  following  expressions  were 
compiled.  In  order  to  get  a general  response  both  pro  and  con 
I asked  the  group  of  regular  observers  to  vote  on  each  state- 
ment and  have  appended  their  answers,  giving  ‘Yes1  vote  first 
ineach  instance. 


< 


< 


/ 


< 


-37- 


Advan  tages , 

1.  Tolerance  of  the  opinions  of  others,  open-mindedness 
and  good  will.  ( 7-0 ) 

2.  Self-reliance,  i.e,  ability  to  go  and  gather  useful 
information.  (7-0) 

3.  The  beginning  of  a scientific  and  critical  attitude 
toward  material.  (7-0 ) 

4.  General  orderliness;  ((very  good  (4);  good  (3).j)# 
Discipline  shifted  from  teacher  to  group  itself:  self-govern- 
ment. 

5.  A get-together  spirit  and  ability  to  cooperate.  This 
is  a remarkable  feature.  (7-0) 

6.  Good  fellowship  and  leadership.  (7-0) 

7.  Acquiring  the  power  to  participate  in  worth-while 
constructive  discussion.  (7-0) 

8.  An  aroused  and  increased  interest.  (7-0) 

9.  Whole-hearted  activity  stimulated  in  pursuit  of 
knowledge.  (6-1) 

10.  Remarkable  facility  in  using  parliamentary  procedure 
as  an  instrument  in  conducting  class  affairs.  (7-0) 

11.  The  teacher  is  'not  dethroned*.  He  is  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  group  as  adviser  and  guide  instead  of  dictator. 
(7-0) 

12.  Responsibility  for  the  conduct  of  the  work  felt  to 
rest  on  both  teacher  and  pupils.  (7-0 ) 

13.  Life  situations,  (approximate).  (6-1) 

A summary  of  these  many  advantages  claimed  by  the  dif- 
ferent writers  for  the  project  method  was  made  by  Miss  Ruby 


-38- 

Minor  of  the  State  Normal  School*  Emporia,  Kansas.  Her  com- 
pilation with  some  few  changes  represents  as  complete  and 
satisfactory  a list  as  may  be  made.  In  fact  upon  first  glance 
it  may  seem  open  to  the  popular  criticism  often  brought 
against  original  work  that  it  claims  every  advantage  old  and 
new.  This  is,  however,  only  apparent. 

1.  Subject-matter  is  considered  in  the  way  that  people 
in  general  consider  it;  in  its  bearings  on  life’s  activities. 

2.  It  is  the  natural  method  of  learning,  through  group 
activity,  and  provides  the  best  conditions  for  learning. 

3.  It  enables  pupils  to  gain,  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions,  that  part  of  the  social  inheritance  which  it  is 
the  business  of  the  school  to  transmit, 

4.  It  gives  emphasis  to  attitudes. 

(a)  It  challenges  the  ability;  arouses  determina- 
tion to  win. 

(b)  Its  appeal  to  the  social,  intellectual,  and 
emotional  factors,  arouses  greater  interest  and  enthusiasm. 

(c)  It  leaves  the  student  with  a desire  to  know 

more . 

5.  It  is  more  economical.  By  emphasizing  larger  things, 
pupils  learn  to  evaluate  and  classify. 

6.  It  furnishes  the  criterion  for  determining  the  capa- 
city of  children;  and  enables  the  teacher  to  recognize  and 
meet  individual  needs, 

7.  It  provides  for  a balanced  development  by  providing 
for  the  use  of  all  the  mental  powers. 


-39- 

8o  It  develops  skill  under  conditions  that  tend  toward 
habituation,, 

9,  It  contributes  to  democracy,, 

(a)  It  gives  training  in  cooperative  social  service,, 
including  leadership  and  division  of  labor* 

(b)  It  imposes  responsibility, 

(c)  It  exercises  discriminating  judgment,  and, 
hence,  awakens  appreciation  of  values* 

(d)  It  makes  for  self-reliance,  self-direction  and 
self-control . 

The  Disadvantages* 

While  an  examination  of  the  literature  dealing  with  the 
project  method  reveals  many  advantages  and  few  disadvantages, 
teachers  recognize  that  it  is  no  panacea  for  all  classroom 
difficulties.  Careful  thinkers  have  mentioned  these  in  detail 
with  such  force  that  no  one  can  fail  to  see  the  cautions  ne- 
cessary in  procuring  the  benefits  claimed  for  project  work. 

In  the  discussion  by  R,  W,  Hatch  mentioned  under  the 
last  topic  are  disadvantages  listed  by  his  pupils  and  his 
graduate  students.  He  writes: 

Bad  Features . 

1.  The  home-work  assignments  are  indefinite,  although  we 
are  improving  in  this  respect, 

2.  Too  much  time  is  spent  on  one  project  through  unne- 
cessary discussion. 

3.  It  is  hard  to  get  references  that  bear  directly  on 
the  point  of  discussion. 

4.  There  is  a tendency  to  wander  off  the  track  when  be- 


-40- 

coming  interested  in  something  else. 

5.  We  don’t  do  our  home-work  regularly. 

6.  Too  much  work  is  carried  by  a few  pupils. 

7.  No  one  can  detect  the  pupils  who  do  not  do  the  out- 
side reading. 

The  class  of  observers  from  Teachers  College  reported  as 
follows; 

D is ad van t ages . 

"1.  Loss  of  time  in  ground  covered  due  to  parliamentary 
discussion.  The  latter,  however,  felt  to  be  distinctly  worth- 
while; a question  of  relative  values.  (7-l) 

2.  Loss  of  time  due  to  needless  discussion,  but  the 
class  is  conscious  of  this  fault  and  is  trying  to  overcome  it. 
(8-0) 

5.  A lack  of  continuous  and  severe  mental  work.  (3-4) 

4.  The  slower  student  seems  to  demand  more  definiteness 
in  the  daily  assignments.  (7-1) 

5.  Getting  beyond  the  depths  of  the  pupils  so  that  they 
talk  about  things  without  clearly  understanding  them.  (2-6) 

6.  Certain  required  subject  matter  slighted.  (1-7) 

7.  Non-participation  on  part  of  some  members  of  the 
class  is  greater  in  this  method.  (3-5) 

8.  Encourages  expression  of  opinion  not  founded  on  suf- 

28 

ficient  knowledge.  (3-5)" 


28.  Hatch  R.  W.  - "Student  Reactions  to  the  Project  Method" 
Teachers  College  Record  September  1921. 


-41- 

Pro,ject  Teaching  and  Composition  Work. 

Throughout  the  foregoing  discussion  of  the  project  method 
care  has  been  exercised  to  show  that  teaching  by  units  of  pur- 
poseful activity  can  be  employed  in  English  composition  cour- 
ses. The  illustrations  recorded  were  selected  from  the  work 
of  pupils  using  projects  in  their  classes®  The  other  examples 
used  are  from  educational  writings  which  deal  with  project 
teaching  in  its  the-ory  and  practice®  The  present  writer  feels 
that  the  sections  treating  with:  the  kinds  of  projects,,  test- 

ing for  projects,  the  development  of  a project,  and  the  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  of  the  method  are  equally  as  true 
in  composition  teaching  as  when  used  in  other  courses  of 
study.  In  these  final  paragraphs  of  the  chapter  some  addi- 
tional explanation  will  be  made  in  regard  to  the  method  when 
carried  on  in  composition  instruction.  The  compilation  of  ex- 
periments constituting  chapter  three  will  further  substantiate 
the  conclusions  that  have  been  made. 

In  various  expressions  both  written  and  oral  by  English 
teachers  this  one  main  purpose  is  named  for  composition  work; 
to  enable  the  pupil  to  speak  and  write  correctly,  convincing- 
ly, and  interestingly.  It  is  a mistake  to  put  a narrow  con- 
struction upon  this  aim  by  treating  English  as  merely  a formal 
subject.  In  no  sense  but  for  the  specialist  in  language  should 
English  be  considered  as  form  of  expression  apart  from  content® 
To  narrow  the  aim  in  this  manner  reduces  the  study  to  an  ac- 
quisition of  skill  through  sufficient  drill  on  the  mechanics 
and  technique  of  writing  and  speaking®  Language  has  alwayB 
been  a vehicle  for  thought  and  exists  for  use  in  communication. 


t 

. 


« 

1 

. 

, 

. 

* 

- 42- 

not  apart  or  separable  by  itself.  The  project  method  supplies 
this  content,  giving  ample  opportunity  for  use  of  the  language 
and,  in  addition,  enables  the  pupils  to  gain  some  serviceable 
knowledge. 

Among  the  different  kinds  of  projects  listed  in  a precede 
ing  paragraph  were  two  very  important  i.e.  the  individual  and 
group  types.  With  the  definition  adopted  it  is  clear  that  such 
a‘  division  may  well  be  made.  In  the  lists  of  advantages  and 
disadvantages  claimed  for  the  use  of  projects  in  teaching  it 
is  evident  that  many  of  them  are  applicable  only  to  group  pro- 
jects. Thus  one,  five  and  six  in  Mr,  Hatch’s  list  of  advan- 
tages hold  true  practically  altogether  for  group  work,  while 
seven  and  ten  may  be  true  of  both  types  of  projects.  In  nearly 
every  experiment  that  has  been  reported  of  the  method  being 
used  in  English  composition  small  groups  as  committees  or  a 
large  group  of  the  whole  class  have  completed  the  project. 

This  arises  from  the  very  nature  of  the  subject  - oral  and 
written  language  for  conveying  ideas  to  others.  The  most  ef- 
ficient use  of  projects  has  been  with  those  of  this  large  and 
small  group  type. 

One  of  the  most  important  and  justifiable  objections  to 
project  teaching  of  composition  is  that  it  does  not  provide 
for  sufficient  drill.  However,  this  has  been  answered  by  some 
experimenters  in  the  past  by  stating  that  such  an  objection 
arises  through  a narrow  unders tanding  of  a project.  If  the 
element  of  purpose  be  made  fundamental,  the  question  arises 
whether  one  might  not  purpose  to  drill  himself;  and  the  answer 
must  be,  yes.  This  means  that  drill  on  grammar  or  the  mechan- 


. 

, 

* 

< < 


. 


- 

. 


. . 

. 

. 


. 


, 


. 


. 


. 


. 


, 


. 

, 

, 


-43- 

ics  of  writing  is  assumed  as  a temporary  project  whenever  spe- 
cific need  for  it  is  found  vitally  necessary  in  the  course  of 
developing  the  main  project  at  hand.  In  reporting  his  project 
with  the  Chicago  high  school  freshmen,  Mr,  lasher  is  careful  to 
v/rite  how  this  element  was  cared  for.  The  pupils  set  out  to  dis- 
cover v/hat  rules  of  capitalization,  punctuation,  and  grammar  were 
followed  by  the  best  edited  magazines  and  newspapers.  As  a re- 
sult of  the  study  each  pupil  wrote  out  rules  in  his  own  phrase- 
ology and  illustrated  them  with  clippings  from  these  periodicals# 
The  pupils  corrected  their  own  manuscripts  in  conformity  with 
their  rules  and  then  exchanged  these  with  other  members  of  the 
class  in  order  to  correct  each  other’s  errors.  After  the  pupils 
had  done  their  best,  the  instructor  read  the  chapters;  but  in- 
stead of  marking  the  mistakes  he  gave  each  pupil  a card  on  which 
v/ere  recorded  the  number  of  mechanical  errors  made.  Everyone 
was  then  v/illing  to  participate  in  some  review  lessons  and  drill 
work  which  would  deal  specifically  with  those  errors.  After  an- 
other correction  of  the  manuscripts,  the  copy  was  declared  ready 

29 

for  publication. 

However,  it  is  not  likely  that  such  success  may  be  secured 
in  any  but  the  highest  grades  of  the  elementary  school.  As  yet 
no  one  has  written  of  this  factor  in  connection  with  grade  school 
projects.  Uo  entire  course  in  English  composition  has  been 


29.  Lasher,  George  Starr  - "The  Project  Method"  - Bulletin 
Illinois  Association  Teachers  of  English,  April  1,  1921. 


. 

»4li' 

. 


1 


, 


. 

« 


. 

. 


« 

. 


< 


. 


-44- 

based  wholly  on  the  project  method,  and  subsequent  experiment 
may  show  that  in  the  grade  schools  at  least  this  can  never  be 
done  successfully.  It  may  be  found  that  frequent  periods  of 
drill  on  grammar  and  the  mechanics  of  writing  aside  from  all 
project  work  are  an  absolute  essential  in  elementary  work. 
Whether  such  conclusions  will  be  true  for  the  higher  school 
composition  courses  remains  to  be  seen.  At  present  this  is 
equally  as  much  a conjecture  as  that  the  project  method  will 
fail  to  supply  sufficient  drill.  The  persistence  with  which 
even  the  most  flagrant  evils  in  English  continue  with  educated 
adults  shows  some  lack  in  the  old  method.  The  project  method 
permits  of  drill  to  weed  out  the  mechanical  mistakes  of  pupils, 
by  utilizing  only  such  information  as  relates  to  the  specific 
errors  found;  all  other  such  facts  are  passed  by  as  irrele- 
vant for  the  time  being.  It  may  be  that  this  plan  will  prove 
most  efficient. 

The  new  position  of  the  teacher. 

Method  is  the  combined  activities  of  the  pupils  and  the 
teacher  working  together.  The  old  method  of  composition  teach- 
ing places  the  greater  share  of  the  responsibility  for  effi- 
cient class  work  upon  the  teacher.  He  is  the  taskmaster,  the 
final  authority,  the  one  for  whom  all  writing  is  done,  the  one 
to  be  satisfied  at  all  times  and  at  all  costs.  The  project 
type  of  teaching  changes  this  but  does  not  give  the  teacher  a 
subordinate  place  as  is  sometimes  erroneously  supposed.  His 
new  position  is  that  of  creator  and  director  of  activity  with 
added  responsibilities  due  to  the  changed  position  of  the  pu- 
pils in  the  recitation.  Since  the  pupils  under  the  new  method 


, 

. 

. 


. 


« 


. Jjjl  |>i 


. 


. 

. 


. 


. 

, 


, 


. 

. 


. 


-45- 

are  to  be  more  than  mere  receivers  of  knowledge,  their  efforts 
must  be  vigilantly  guided  by  the  alert  teacher.  He  does  no 
more  than  is  necessary  yet  he  is  always  the  final  arbiter  of 
what  shall  be  performed  in  the  school  room.  This  will  not  re- 
move the  personal  initiative  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  so  much 
desired,  for  the  teacher  discourages  the  unworthy  and  approves 
what  promises  sufficient  value.  This  new  outlook  presupposes 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  a willingness  to  work,  daily  growth 
of  ideas,  keeping  abreast  of  current  community  life,  a breadth 
of  interests  - which  means  keeping  young  in  spirit,  and  a sym- 
pathy for  that  which  seems  important  in  child  life  even  though 
it  may  not  seem  so  for  the  adult.  The  project  method  rightly 
used  is  not  the  easy  way  out  for  the  teacher,  but  in  propor- 
tion to  the  responsibilities  it  offers  are  promised  lasting 
benefits  for  himself  and  his  pupils. 

Summary. 

The  project  method  of  teaching  is  teaching  by  means  of 
projects.  A project  defined  is:  A unit  of  purposeful  activity 

where  the  dominating  purpose,  as  an  inner  urge,  (l)  fixes  the 
aim  of  the  action,  (2)  guides  its  process,  and  (3)  furnishes 
its  drive,  its  inner  motivation.  The  one  essential  of  any 
project  is  that  the  person  or  persons  engaged  must  be  working 
whole-heartedly  in  an  undertaking  for  which  there  has  been 
purposeful  planning.  Projects  may  be  of  various  types  as 
simple  and  complex,  individual  and  group,  manual  and  intel- 
lectual. It  has  been  noted  in  English  composition  work  that 
among  the  most  successful  ones  are  the  group  projects  in  which 
the  whole  class  participates.  Projects  may  be  suggested  by 


< 


. 

, 

, 

< 


. 

, 

, 

. 

. 

-46- 

the  teacher  but  must  always  be  made  the  personal  property, 
so  to  speak,  of  the  pupils  if  the  success  desired  is  to  be 
attained,, 

For  teachers  and  pupils  using  the  project  method  we 
noted  first  a list  of  advantages.  For  the  pupil  the  method 
affords  opportunities  for:  leadership,  initiative,  coOpera  - 

tion,  intelligent  following,  self-reliance,  and  judging  of 
results.  For  the  teacher:  it  enables  him  to  keep  young  in 

spirit  through  a constant  interest  in  current  life,  it  gives 
opportunity  for  vigorous  mental  activity,  it  permits  him  to 
keep  abreast  of  progress,  and  it  allows  for  sympathy  with  pu- 
pil efforts  in  mounting  difficulties  real  for  them  as  they 
grow. 

There  were  two  main  objections.  First,  that  the  method 
wasted  time  on  long  projects  and  in  parliamentary  discussion. 
This  latter,  however,  affords  excellent  opportunity  for  oral 
expression  not  otherwise  granted  in  usual  composition  work. 
Second,  that  the  method  does  not  provide  sufficient  drill. 
This  may  be  a more  pertineht  objection  in  the  grades  than 
elsewhere,  but  writers  answer  this  by  stating  that  one  may 
purpose  to  drill  himself,  making  drill  a project. 

As  yet  no  entire  course  of  English  composition  for  any 
grade  has  been  reported  as  being  based  entirely  on  the  pro- 
ject method.  Future  trials  with  the  method  must  be  made  be- 
fore any  such  plan  can  be  proposed.  Comparisons  between  the 
results  gained  by  a control  group  using  the  old  plan  and  an 
experimental  group  taught  by  the  project  method  ought  to  be 
made  before  any  definite  conclusions  can  be  offered.  There 


I 


. 

: ■ 

, 

. 

, 


• 

, ( 

, 

. 

l 

t 

• 

, 

-47- 

can  be  no  list  of  stereotyped  projects  formulated  if  the  method 
is  to  succeed  as  fully  as  is  now  thought  possible. 


. 


48, 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  Application  of  the  Project  Me thod  to  the 
Teaching  of  English  Composition. 

In  the  first  chapter  of  this  discussion  an  attempt  was 
made  to  sketch  briefly  some  of  the  changes  that  had  taken 
place  in  the  teaching  of  English  in  our  American  secondary 
schools  since  1874.  The  history  of  education  shows  that  simi- 
lar changes  took  place  in  the  other  subjects  of  the  elementary, 
secondary,  and  higher  school  curriculuras  during  the  nineteenth 
century.  In  the  early  division  of  labor  teaching  was  turned 
over  to  those  men  who  already  were  scholars  or  to  men  whose 
interests  were  so  bent  as  to  lead  them  to  become  scholars 
later.  Hence  it  was  natural  that  the  first  emphasis  should  be 
on  a subject  matter  that  was  abstract,  apart  from  life  outside 
of  school  and  in  terms  of  school  life.  This  has  changed  in 
our  country  since  the  time  (roughly  set)  of  the  Civil  War  when 
the  emphasis  came  to  be  put  on  fitting  the  pupil  to  take  his 
place  in  the  life  outside  of  school. 

With  two  exceptions  the  following  projects  have  been 
taken  from  current  literature  on  the  subject  to  demonstrate 
how  the  project  method  has  succeeded  where  it  has  been  tried. 

In  no  case  has  the  writer  learned  of  an  entire  course  in  com- 
position being  taught  entirely  by  projects,  nor  are  the  il- 
lustrations to  follow  offered  with  the  idea  of  organizing  such 
a course.  The  difficulties  attendent  upon  a plan  of  that 
character  for  a whole  course  make  imperative  much  more  experi- 


. 

. 


. 

, 

, 


. 

' 


. 


, 


. 


. 


. 

- 

, 


-49- 


mentation  than  has  been  given  the  method  thus  far.  It  may  be 
that  such  a course  cannot  be  successfully  accomplished  owing 
to  the  nature  of  the  subject  and  the  necessity  of  preventing 
projects  from  becoming  stereotyped.  Examples  have  been  chosen 
from  articles  in  such  writings  as:  The  English  Journal.  The 

Journal  of  Educational  Methods.  The  Bulletin  of  the  Illinois 
Association  of  Teachers  of  English.  School  and  Society,  and 
other  periodicals  of  similar  nature.  Among  the  group  are  com- 
position projects  that  have  been  carried  on  in  lower,  second- 
ary, and  higher  fields  of  education. 

Grade  School  Projects* 

"Live  3Ln_ Virginia” . This  project  represents  the  most 
common  one  in  point  of  type  that  has  been  utilized  for  English 
project  teaching.  The  teacher  believing  at  first  that  project 
teaching  could  be  used  only  at  the  close  of  a "regular*'  course 
sometimee  in  May  or  June  resolved  to  attempt  it  at  the  begin- 
ning in  September  by  acting  on  the  suggestion  of  a supervisor 
who  named  "Virginia"  as  a fit  subject, 

A thorough  canvass  of  the  subject  gave  thirty  topics  that 
would  need  to  be  handled  in  order  to  cover  the  work.  These  in- 
cluded the  history  of  the  city,  its  advantages  due  to  loca- 
tion, its  schools,  churches,  library,  Virginia  as  a melting 
pot  (there  are  so  many  foreigners),  open- pit  and  underground 
mining,  all  the  other  important  industries,  public  utilities. 


3G  , Glaser,  Emma  - "Eighth  Grade  Composition  by  Projects" 
English  Journal  - November  1921 . 


< 


. 


. 


< 


. 


-5C- 

government , and  other  phases  of  the  city’s  life,  ending  with 
a chapter  on  suggestions  for  improvements  in  the  city.  The 
entire  project  was  so  divided  into  minor  ones  that  it  could 
be  carried  on  and  completed  by  two  classes  of  about  equal 
ability. 

These  classes  were  organized  into  booster  clubs,  one  as 
"The  Cheerful  Class  of  Boosters”,  the  other,  "Thrifty  Boosters 
Both,  choosing  by  vote  from  a list  of  mottoes  they  had  sug- 
gested, selected  "We  are  Virginians  as  well  as  Americans," 

The  children  were  wildly  enthusiastic  about  the  plan.  It  had 
the  appeal  of  reality  and  worth-whileness  which  held  their  en- 
thusiasm throughout  the  term.  The  entire  class  period  was 
given  over  to  the  club  meeting,  which  was  conducted  by  the 
children  alone.  Four  topics  were  covered  each  week,  two  in 
each  class,  by  the  following  plan. 

The  teacher  divided  both  classes  into  groups  or  committees 
of  three,  being  careful  to  have  at  least  one  in  each  group  with 
a reasonable  amount  of  initiative,  but  mixing  groups  promis- 
cuously as  to  boys  and  girls  and  chums.  The  topics  were  care- 
fully assigned  to  each  group  with  regard  to  appeal  or  inter- 
est, Some  evidences  of  dissatisfaction  were  anticipated  since 
almost  everyone  would  wish  to  investigate  such  topics  as  under- 
ground mining  and  night  schools  in  preference  to  climate, 
garages,  and  the  like.  Eut  invariably  the  president’s  an- 
nouncements of  the  committees  for  the  following  week  was  met 
with  obvious  satisfaction. 

As  soon  as  possible  after  each  assignment  on  Friday,  the 
teacher  made  an  appointment  with  each  of  the  four  committees 


»a 


. 

, 

, 

. 

, 

. 

, 


■ 


. 

. 

. 


. 


-51- 

for  a brief  survey  of  given  topics,  and  aided  the  pupils  to 
make  a general  outline  as  a basis  guide#  Sometimes  it  ■was 
necessary  to  direct  the  research  at  the  library,  in  the  use 
of  the  card  catalog  and  reference  indexes,  or  in  the  selection 
of  books  that  might  contain  desirable  material,.  Whenever  prac- 
ticable the  teacher  went  with  the  groups  on  trips  of  investi- 
gation, urging  always  on  such  occasions  free  and  individual 
questioning,  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,, 

Afterward  each  group  was  left  to  arrange  its  own  meetings 
for  study  and  theme  preparation.  After  the  preliminary  busi- 
ness of  the  meeting  on  Friday  the  theme  was  read  or  told,  as 
a unit  by  one  member,  or  in  parts  by  the  three.  Then  followed 
discussion,  comment,  and  suggestions  by  the  class.  Class 
criticism  which  is  often  hard  to  secure  or  to  keep  unbiased, 
became  spontaneous  and  good-natured.  The  children  criticised 
sincerely  because  each  paper  was  a common  interest,  being  a 
chapter  for  the  prospective  book  on  Virginia,  which  every  mem- 
ber was  anxious  to  make  a worthy  class  accomplishment , After 
the  class  discussion  the  committees  prepared  their  final  pa- 
pers, containing  many  snapshots,  colored  post  cards,  etc., 
which  were  decorated  with  pen-and-ink  sketches  and  at  last 
bound  together  into  a book  called  HThe  Story  of  Virginia"  with 
covers  made  by  the  art  committee. 

21 

"Where  i n^  the  Uni  ted  States  Do  We^  G e t^  Our  Food  Supply?" 
This  project  complete  was  carried  out  in  the  fourth  grade  where 

2l.  Warren,  Minetta  L. , - "A  project  for  the  Entire  Term" 
Journal^  of  _ Educational  Method^  - September  1921-page  26 . 


. 


> 

» 

, 

« 


. 

* 


, 


- 


. 


( 


-52- 

one  teacher  taught  all  the  subjects  and  lasted  the  entire 
term  for  the  children.  The  other  grade  studies  beside  Eng- 
lish were  cared  for  in  detail.  The  use  that  was  made  of  the 
project  for  composition  work  is  of  interest  and  will  be  con- 
sidered here. 

The  project  as  set  involved:  Where  in  the  United  States 

do  we  get  our  food  supply?  Of  what  does  it  consist,  chiefly? 
How  do  we  get  it  and  who  helps  us  get  it?  In  developing  these 
topics  minor  projects  grew  readily  among  them  such  as  the  ne- 
cessity of  constructing  model  reapers,  binders,  and  threshing 
machines  out  of  pasteboard  for  models.  The  written  work  de- 
veloped from  these  and  other  efforts. 

1.  When  the  pupils  brought  in  their  concrete  projects 
they  y/ished  to  tell  the  teacher  how  they  had  been  made.  She 

suggested  that,  since  she  could  not  possibly  have  time  to 

hear  them  all,  they  tell  her  on  paper,  which  they  did. 

2.  A young  niece,  who  was  spending  the  summer  in  the 

mountains  near  Denver,  sent  the  teacher  a collection  of  Rocky 
Mountain  wild  flowers.  Among  them  were  some  fine  specimens 
of  the  Indian  kinnikinnik.  With  them  she  inclosed  a beauti- 
ful legend  concerning  it,  which  had  been  told  her  by  Enos  A. 
Mills,  the  well-knov.Ti  naturalist.  The  children  wrote  and 
thanked  her  for  both  legend  and  flowers. 

5.  A young  college  girl,  without  training  in  method,  be- 
gan teaching  in  a small  town  in  Oregon  and  asked  for  sugges- 
tions. Miss  Warren  sent  her  a list  of  the  names  of  her  own 
pupils  requesting  that  her  pupils  write  Miss  Warren’s  asking 
anything  they  cared  to  know  about  Detroit  and  Michigan,  and 


t 


< 


t 


-53- 

telling  about  something  of  which  they  were  sure  the  others 
could  know  but  little*  such  as  the  salmon  fisheries,  mountain 
scenery,  and  anything  else  which  would  be  of  interest.  The 
Detroit  pupils  answered  the  letters  received,  giving  points  of 
local  interest  and  inclosing  a colored  postcard.  Miss  Warren 
wrote  the  teacher,  giving  some  interesting  facts  in  the  early 
history  of  Detroit  and  Michigan,  and  inclosing  two  dozen  post- 
cards,, From  this  quite  a vigorous  correspondence  resulted,, 

4 o The  children  all  wrote  to  a Minneapolis  publishing 
company  asking  for  pictures  of  the  wheat  industry.  From  the 
number  of  letters  v/ritten  the  teacher  selected  about  one-half 
dozen  which  were  examined  by  a committee  of  the  pupils  which 
chose  one  from  among  these  six. 

32 

"The  National  Fire_  Prevention  Darvw  . This  well-developed 
project  taken  from  one  of  the  very  latest  of  the  new  type  of 
English  lextbooks  for  the  grades  has  a two- fold  value.  First, 
it  suggests  amply  how  a project  on  this  important  subject  may 
be  carried  on;  second,  it  represents  a use  that  may  be  made  of 
all  national  and  local  celebration  days.  Such  projects  as  may 
be  formed  about  birthdays  of  great  statesmen,  generals,  wri- 
ters, inventors,  and  others,  in  connection  with  national  holi- 
days as  Armistice  Day,  Thanksgiving,  Christmas,  Easter,  Fourth 
of  July,  etc.,  are  bound  to  become  a much  more  important  part 
of  the  project  work  in  English  than  they  have  been  in  the  past. 


32.  Miller,  William  D.,  and  Paul,  Harry  G.,  - Frac tical 
English  Book  III  - Lyons  and  Carnahan  (Chicago,  1 922, pp. 222-226) 


t 


< 


< 


1 


\ 


l 


-54* 

"The  National  Fire  Prevention  Day , 

On  October  the  ninth,  many  years  ago,  the  giant  Fire 
went  tearing  through  the  City  of  Chicago,  sweeping  away  large 
and  costly  buildings,  and  feeding  on  human  blood  and  life. 

Now  October  the  ninth  has  been  made  our  National  Fire  Preven- 
tion Lay  which  is  observed  by  schools  all  over  the  United 
States.  Naturally  you  wish  your  community  and  your  school  to 
take  part  in  this  splendid  movement;  so  you  may  now  begin 
your  preparations  for  observing  Fire  Prevention  Day. 

"Inviting  Your  Guests. 

Probably  you  will  wish  to  observe  October  the  ninth  as 
your  Fire  Prevention  Day.  If,  for  any  reason,  that  date  is  not 
convenient,  you  may  decide  upon  another  one.  What  hour  of  the 
day  will  test  suit  your  guests  and  you?  Having  determined  your 
date,  you  may  next  decide  whom  you  will  invite.  What  shall  be 
the  form  of  your  invitation?  How  shall  these  invitations  be 
prepared?  When  and  how  shall  they  be  sent  out? 

"Learning  about  Fire  Prevention  Day . 

T'  * m Pm»fc.r-p"<i  — »■  ■■  i m,\  m — ■ > >i  — <i 

Now  you  will  need  a committee  to  learn  the  chief  facte 
concerning  Fire  Prevention  Day  and  to  prepare  a report  which 
shall  form  one  of  the  numbers  on  your  program.  First  this  com- 
mittee will  find  out  what  it  can  do  about  the  movement  from 
some  of  your  local  insurance  agents.  Your  teacher  will  then 
tell  the  committee  of  other  sources  of  information  about  this 
important  day.  As  it  is  necessary  to  send  away  for  this  ma- 
terial, this  committee  should  begin  its  work  well  in  advance 
of  the  time  for  your  program. 


, 


< 

< 

, 

. 

• 

, 

-55- 

"What  Fire  Costs.  Your  Community. 

Another  committee  may  take  up  the  question  of  what  fire 
has  cost  the  community.  It  may  include  in  its  report  an  ac- 
count of  the  chief  causes  of  fire  in  your  neighborhood.  It 
may  try  to  find  out  what  fire  has  cost  your  community  and  may 
show  what  use  the  school  might  make  of  the  money  thus  wasted. 

"Fire  Prevention  in_ Your  Community , 

Each  pupil  may  be  a member  of  the  committee  which  will 
make  a survey  of  your  community  to  discover  possible  sources 
of  fire  and  to  suggest  means  of  removing  or  of  lessening  the 
dangers  from  these.  Here  are  some  questions  that  may  help 
you  plan  your  work.  You  wall  doubtless  have  many  other  topics 
which  you  will  wish  to  discuss. 

"What  are  the  chief  causes  of  fire  around  the  home?  Why 
is  such  rubbish  as  old  paper  or  broken  furniture  in  the  attic 
or  in  the  basement  a frequent  source  of  fire?  How  are  fires 
sometimes  started  from  rubbish  in  the  yard? 


What  can  be  done  to  lessen  the  danger  of  fires  starting  on 
the  roof? 


"After  you  have  made  a careful  survey  of  your  home  and 
your  neighborhood,  you  may  decide  what  is  the  most  practical 
and  valuable  suggestion  each  of  you  can  offer  to  the  class  for 
preventing  fire.  Come  to  class  ready  to  tell  your  fellow  pu- 
pils of  the  situation  which  you  think  most  needs  attention,  in 
your  school,  or  in  your  community. 

"After  you  have  presented  these  matters  orally  in  class. 


t 


-56 


you  may  write  out  your  talk  carefully.  Do  your  test  to  make 
your  classmates  see  the  situation  just  as  you  see  it  and  to 
show  clearly  the  remedy.  Before  handing  in  your  work  to  the 
committee  on  Ways  to  Aid  in  Fire  Prevention,  be  sure  that  it 
is  as  clear  and  interesting  and  helpful  as  you  can  make  it. 
Proof-read  it  carefully  - there  must  be  no  mistakes  in  form  - 
and  make  sure  that  it  is  neat  and  easy  to  read.  The  committee 
on  Ways  to  Aid  in  Fire  Prevention  will  go  over  these  papers 
carefully  and,  with  the  aid  of  your  teacher,  will  decide  how 
many  and  what  papers  shall  form  a part  of  your  program. 

"Securing  a Speaker . 

If  you  live  in  a community  where  there  is  a fire  company, 
some  fireman  will  probably  be  glad  to  take  part  in  your  pro- 
gram and  to  talk  to  you  on  MHow  School  Children  can  Help  the 

Fire  Department" 

How  and  when  shall  your  speaker  be  invited? 

"Other  Features  of  the  Program . 

What  songs  shall  form  a part  of  your  program?  Of  course 
you  will  wish  some  of  our  national  songs.  What  should  be  the 
nature  of  the  other  songs  you  select?  Do  you  wish  any  marches 
or  fire  drills?  If  so,  what  shall  be  the  nature  of  these?... 


Whit  other  suggestions  can  you  offer  for  making  this  the  best 
program  you  have  ever  prepared? 

" The  Program  Committee . 

After  you  have  discussed  these  matters  fully  in  class* 
the  Program  Committee  will  arrange  the  different  numbers  in 
the  best  order  and  will  provide  the  necessary  copies  for  your 


I 


-57- 


guests . 

"The  Decoration  Cpmmi tte e . 

Of  course  you  wish  to  make  your  room  as  neat  and  attrac- 
tive for  your  guests  as  you  can.  Why  is  it  especially  appro- 
priate that  you  should  give  your  desks  and  room  a good  house- 
cleaning for  this  occasion?  In  decorating  what  use  can  you 
make  of  fire  prevention  colors  and  the  device  used  as  a symbol. 
Can  you  suggest  any  appropriate  materials  to  place  on  the 

blackboard? 

"Other-  Committees. 

Do  you  wish  other  committees  to  provide  chairs  for  your 
guests  and  to  act  as  ushers? 

" Summing  Up  Results . 

After  you  have  given  your  program,  you  may  come  to  class 
prepared  to  tell  your  fellow  pupils  either  of  the  most  valu- 
able idea  you  have  gained  from  Fire  Prevention  Day  or  of  what 
you  propose  to  do  during  the  coming  year  to  lessen  the  danger 
from  fire  in  your  home  and  in  your  community.  If  you  choose 
the  latter  subject,  be  sure  that  you  are  suggesting  something 
which  you  can  actually  carry  out." 

Secondary  School  Projects. 

33  ~ 

"The  Employment  Lesson."  - Correlation  of  the  oral  with 
the  vocational  lesson  offers  infinite  possibilities.  First, 
for  roll-call,  enumerate  vocations  for  boys  and  girls.  Busi- 

33.  Stacy,  Mabel  if.,  - "Practical  Experiments  in  Oral  English 
in  the  High  School"  - The  Illinois  Association  of  Teachers  of 


English.  Bulletin  April  1.  1922 


-58- 

nese  life  demands  the  useful.  Always  have  a roll-call  of  the 
class  to  which  each  pupil  answers  with  something  suitable  to 
the  lesson.  This  gives  an  opportunity  to  speak  at  least  once, 
and  even  the  more  difficult  will  respond  easily  to  this  part 
of  the  lesson. 

Vocation  Lesson:  If  I were  to  leave  school  now,  what  vo- 

cation would  I follow? 

1.  Why?  3.  My  fitness. 

2.  Qualifications.  4.  Possibilities  - 

Financial  - 
Service  - 
Other  benefits. 

Ambition  - Lay: 

Roll-call  - name  ambitions  in  order  of  appearanc es in  life. 

Topic  - My  Present  Ambition: 

1.  Origin,  4.  Why  change  it? 

2.  Explain  it.  5.  Ambition  now,  why? 

3.  Illustrate  how  it  worked  out. 

Five  of  the  class  acted  as  employers,  suiting  themselves 
to  the  group  applying  for  positions  as  stenographers,  clerks, 
mechanics,  draftsmen,  cooks,  and  chauffeurs.  Each  applied  in 
person,  bringing  recommendations  and  really  selling  his  ser- 
vices. There  was  an  office  boy,  and  telephone  conversations 
were  really  vitally  helpful  to  some  of  the  applicants  who  ac- 
tually used  the  suggestions  gained  here  in  getting  positions 
in  the  city. 

The  following  is  the  text  of  the  original  play  issued  in 
connection  with  The  Employment  Lesson. 


, 


. 


. 


-59- 

Why  Didn*  t - She  Get  the  Position ? 

(Scene  is  in  a section  of  a brokerage  office0  Woman 
seated  at  desk,  writing.  Applicant  enters,  watching  woman, 
standing  about  ten  feet  or  so  away  from  the  desk.  Applicant 
coughs  slightly  to  draw  her  attention,  and  she  looks  up  in- 
quiringly) 

Stenographer  - You  had  an  advertisement  in  the  paper  - 

Employer  - Yes, 

Sten.  - Is  the  job  still  open? 

Emp.  - Yes.  I suppose  you  want  to  apply,.  Sit  down. 

(Stenographer  sits  down  carefully.) 

Emp.  - (Now  turning  her  entire  attention  to  scrutiniz- 
ing applicant,  apparently  not  well  satisfied)  What  is  your 
experience? 

Sten.  - (Glibly)  Three  years. 

Emp..  - Three  years  at  what? 

Sten,  - Stenography. 

Emp.  - Where  did  you  work? 

Sten.  - (Impressively)  One  year  with  a lawyer,  about  a 
year  with  a tailor  factory,  six  months  in  a railroad  office, 
two  months  in  an  overall  manufacturing  concern,  and  one  month 
in  the  City  Hospital. 

Emp.  - (Smiling)  Your  experience  has  certainly  been 
varied. 

Sten,  - (Eagerly)  Oh,  yes,  I can  handle  any  job  in  the 
stenographic  line,  and  if  this  job  pays  right  1*11  take  it. 

Emp.  - But  why  have  you  changed  so  often? 

Sten.  - (Sulkily)  Just  as  soon  as  I*d  get  settled  on  a 


, 


* 


, 

, 


.-60- 

job,  they’d  start  picking  on  me,  and  finding  fault,  and  I 
wouldn’t  stand  for  it. 

Emp.  - They  did  that  at  each  one  of  these  places? 

Sten.  - Most  all. 

Emp.  - Well  the  work  isn’t  hard  here,  altho  it  is  impor- 
tant that  the  letters  be  absolutely  correct.  It  consists  of 
confirmations  of  telegrams  mainly;  and  after  the  stenographer 
gets  familiar  with  the  work,  she  will  probably  be  able  to  take 
care  of  them  without  dictation.  Suppose  you  try  a letter  - 

(Stenographer  accepts  pencil  and  paper) 

Emp.  - (Dictates)  "In  confirmation  our  telegram  we  were 
obliged  to  let  go  of  a small  block  of  your  A;ztes  -25  stock8 
since  your  remittance  of  $1000.00  was  not  forthcoming.  We 
fear  a further  drop  and  wish  you  would  advise  us  by  wire  what 
to  do."  Read  that  back  please. 

Sten.  - (Reads)  "In  confirmation  of  your  telegram  we 
were  obliged  to  let  go  of  a small  block  with  Aztes,  since  your 
$1000.00  was  not  coming.  We  feel  a hard  drop  and  wish  to  ad- 
vise you  by  wire  what  we  will  do." 

Emp.  - (Much  annoyed)  Oh,  you  have  entirely  lost  the 
sense  of  the  letter.  That  would  never  do, 

Sten.  - (Defensively)  It’s  what  you  said  ! 

Emp.  - (Impatiently)  If  I did  say  it  I couldn’t  keep  a 
position  longer  than  a month  either.  Did  you  kill  anyone  down 
atl  the  hospital?  Good  afternoon.  (Turns  back  to  her  work) 

Sten.  - (Rising  to  go)  Oh,  well,  I wouldn’t  have  taken 
the  job  anyway.  You  know,  women  are  awfully  crabby  people  to 
work  for. 


- 


( 


-61 


34 

"Chicago  - Our  City**  - There  is  no  reason  why  atten- 
tion in  an  English  composition  course  should  not  concern  it- 
self with  content  as  well  as  form.  It  was  with  the  idea  that 
his  freshman  classes  should  gain  some  serviceable  knowledge 
as  well  as  training  in  expression  that  the  first  time  Mr.  Lash- 
er faced  them  he  offered  this  challenge:  HIs  Chicago  a de- 

sirable place  in  which  to  live?  The  answer  was  decidedly  in 
the  affirmative;  but  he  insisted,  that  they  would  have  to 
prove  this  contention  as  he  had  come  to  Chicago  under  protest, 
believing  it  to  be  a dirty,  noisy,  disagreeable  city.  They 
agreed  to  accept  the  challenge  and  prove  his  judgment  ill 
founded. 

As  a result,  the  following  day  twenty-five  oral  themes 
in  each  class  were  directed  at  the  instructor,  some  of  which 
were  not  without  force  and  all  of  which  were  marked  by  down- 
right earnestness.  When  the  talks  were  completed,  he  told  the 
pupils  that  while  he  was  considerably  impressed,  he  was  not 
convinced,  because  their  facts  were  too  meager;  but  if  their 
claims  could  be  substantiated  he  felt  almost  anyone  would  be 
compelled  to  admit  that  Chicago  was  a good  place  in  which  to 
live.  He  intimated  that  it  seemed  rather  futile  to  go  to  work 
to  prove  their  case  unless  some  sort  of  permanent  record  of 
information  were  made.  Various  suggestions  were  offered  by 
the  pupils  as  to  what  would  be  a desirable  means  of  preserv- 


34.  Lasher,  George  Starr  - "The  Project  Method:  Giving  Pur- 
pose to  English  Composition".  The  Illinois  Association  of 
Teachers  of  English  - Bulletin  April  1.  • 


. 


, 


. 


. 


« 


, 


, 


- 


. 


62- 


ing  this  information.  At  last  the  waited-for  suggestion  came: 
"Why  not  write  a book  about  Chicago?"  The  idea  found  instant 
favor,  and  the  class  plunged  immediately  into  the  necessary 
plans. 

From  the  composite  list  suggested  by  members  of  the  class, 
each  pupil  made  a selection  of  his  individual  chapter,  in  the 
writing  of  which,  the  class  decided,  he  should  be  permitted 
to  use  his  ov/n  originality.  Each  pupil,  however,  outlined  his 
plan  to  the  class  securing  helpful  criticisms  and  suggestions,, 
Many  devices  were  used,  including  telling  of  visits  to  the  city* 
diary  records,  inspection  of  towns,  newspaper  interviews,  rides 
in  sightseeing  automobiles,  and  guide-book  sketches 

After  the  plans  had  been  adopted  and  rough  outlines  of 
each  chapter  made,  the  pupils  found  themselves  face  to  face 
to  fact  with  their  first  big  problem,  the  securing  of  authori- 
tative material.  Real  motive  was  thus  afforded  a week' 3 Btudy 
of  library  methods  in  which  was  gained  training  in  the  use  of 
books,  the  card  catalog,  the  Reader* s Guide  to  Periodical 
Literature,  pamphlets,  and  other  library  sources.  A biblio- 
graphy on  each  chapter  was  made  out.  Pupils  supplemented 
their  reading  with  inspection  trips,  personal  inves tigation, 
and  correspondence  and  conferences  with  persons  from  whom 
information  might  be  secured. 

Portions  of  each  chapter  were  read  as  they  were  written; 
these  were  criticized  thoroughly  by  the  class,  and  revised 
in  accordance  with  the  wiser  criticism.  Although  at  no  time 
did  the  instructor  suggest  rewriting,  some  of  the  pupils  re- 
wrote their  chapters  completely  three  and  four  times  in  an 


« 


, 


- 63- 

effort  to  secure  the  best  possible  result. 

After  the  pupils  had  completed  writing  their  chapters, 
they  found  that  editing  and  proof-reading  were  essential  steps 
in  bookraaking.  It  was  decided  that  a style  sheet  would  be 
necessary  to  insure  uniformity.  The  pupils  set  out  to  discover 
what  rules  in  capitalization,  punctuation,  and  grammar  were 
followed  by  the  best  edited  magazines  and  newspapers.  As  a 
result  of  this  study  each  pupil  wrote  out  rules  in  his  own 
phraseology  and  illustrated  them  with  clippings  from  newspa- 
pers and  magazines.  The  pupils  corrected  their  own  manuscripts 
in  conformity  with  their  rules  and  then  exchanged  with  other 
members  of  the  class  in  order  to  correct  each  other's  errors. 
Many  were  the  warm  arguments  over  these  corrections,  occasion- 
ally necessi tating  the  services  of  the  instructor  as  a referee. 
After  the  pupils  had  done  their  best,  the  instructor  read  the 
chapters;  but  instead  of  marking  the  mistakes  he  gave  each 
pupil  a card  on  which  were  recorded  the  number  of  errors  made 
in  spelling,  grammar,  punctuation,  and  capi talization.  Every- 
one was  then  willing  to  participate  in  some  review  lessons 
and  drill  work  which  would  deal  specifically  with  those  errors. 
After  another  correction  of  the  manuscripts,  the  copy  was  de- 
clared ready  for  publication. 

About  one  third  of  the  pupils  had  access  to  typewriters, 
and  they  offered  to  type  the  chapters.  This  necessitated 
more  proof-reading  on  the  part  of  the  authors.  As  it  was  de- 
cided that  illustrations  would  add  to  the  value  of  the  books, 
two  days  were  spent  in  gathering  postcards,  pen-and-ink 
sketches,  clippings  from  periodicals  and  kodak  views.  Each 


-64- 

author  designed  a title  page  for  his  respective  chapter. 

The  various  chapters  were  then  assembled  into  a book, 
and  a title  page,  a preface,  chosen  through  competition,  and 
a table  of  contents  added.  Arrangements  for  binding  the  book 
had  been  made  with  a binding  company  through  letters  written 
by  the  class.  As  a result  "Chicago  * Our  City"  became  a part 
of  the  high  school  library, to  be  made  use  of  in  any  way  the 
pupils  of  that  school  saw  fit". 

In  addition  to  this  final  product  the  pupils  were  given 
opportunity  to  judge  of  the  results  obtained.  "Not  the  least 
valuable  experience  in  connection  with  the  project  was  the 
discussion  which  followed  its  completion.  Each  pupil  was 
given  a chance  to  tell  how  the  book  as  a whole  compared  with 
the  expectation  he  had  had,  and  how  his  own  chapter  met  the 
standards  he  had. set  up.  While  the  general  feeling  prevailed 
that  the  project  had  been  well  worth  while,  individuals  told 
clearly  how  they  would  improve  their  own  contribution  if  an- 
other  opportunity  were  offered.  They  felt,  however,  that  they 
had  learned  a good  deal  from  their  mistakes.  Furthermore, 
they  realized  that  they  had  acquired  desirable  information 
about  and  a keener  appreciation  of  their  ov/n  city. 

55 

Better  English  Week.  - No  plan  has  been  more  popular  in 
the  teaching  of  English  composition  than  what  is  known  as 

35.  Stevenson,  J.  A.-  The  Project  Method  of  Teaching  New 
York  1921-pp.  197*200.  A quotation  from  a student  report* 


-65- 

Better  English  Week.  This  has  been  made  a real  live  project 
in  several  cities  often  engaging  the  efforts  of  pupils  in 
the  elementary  schools,  high  schools,  and  normal  schools.  One 
teacher  has  made  and  used  the  following  plan  to  arouse  a de- 
sire for  better  expression  among  the  pupils: 

About  two  or  three  weeks  before  Better  English  Y/eek,  she 
sent  members  of  her  class  about  the  town  to  find  out  for  them- 
selves if  business  men  put  much  value  on  good  English.  Some 
were  sent  to  interview  lawyers,  merchants .and  ministers. 

Others  put  the  question  to  farmers,  workmen  on  the  street,  to 
the  mayor  of  the  city,  and  so  on,  until  they  came  in  contact 
with  many  types  of  business  and  professional  men. 

They  were  asked  to  bring  back  to  class  reports  of  their 
conversations  word  for  word  as  far  as  possible.  Some  of  the 
results  plainly  indicated  that  men  who  used  good  English  and 
knew  how  to  express  themselves  could  carry  on  a logical  con- 
versation which  could  be  repeated  point  by  point  in  good 
style.  Other  pupils  could  report  only  a few  incoherent  sen- 
tences and  say  that  they  had  tried  to  get  the  ideas  or  opin- 
ions of  the  person  interviewed  but  that  he  did  not  seem  able 
to  express  himself.  The  class  agreed  that  the  persons  who 
used  good  English  and  expressed  themselves  clearly  were  al- 
ways the  most  interesting  to  talk  to,  and  in  almost  every 
case  these  persons  were  more  successful  in  the  business  world 
than  those  who  used  poor  English. 

When  the  class  realized  this  fact  they  verified  their 
results  still  further.  They  wrote  letters  to  a number  of 
the  most  influential  men  in  town  and  asked  each  one  to  make 


. 


, 


, 

. 

. 

, 

. 

. 


. 

. 

. 

, 


. 


-66- 

a list  of  qualifications  which  he  thought  essential  for  a 
young  man  or  woman  to  have  who  wished  to  get  on  well  in  the 
business  world.  Nearly  everyone  who  responded  included  good 
expression  in  the  list.  Here  was  the  place  to  introduce  busi- 
ness letter  writing.  The  pupils  saw  a need  for  it,  were  ready 
for  it  and  wanted  it.  The  letters  referred  to  above  were  writ- 
ten as  a class  exercise. 

After  this  inves tigation  the  members  of  the  class  saw 
that  they  must  learn  to  express  themselves  well  if  they  were 
to  be  successful.  The  class  wished  to  start  a campaign  for 
better  English.  The  work  was  turned  over  to  the  pupils,  clever 
posters  and  slogans  were  made  in  the  arts  classes.  These  were 
placed  in  classrooms  and  corridors  on  the  Friday  before  Better 
English  Week. 

The  members  of  the  class  jotted  down  every  error  in 
grammar  that  they  detected  in  the  classrooms  or  on  the  school 
grounds,  made  by  either  pupils  or  teachers.  Everyone  was  very 
careful  during  that  week  to  avoid  getting  a "black  mark".  On 
Friday  the  reports  were  made  and  a record  of  the  frequency  of 
mistakes  was  put  on  the  blackboard.  This  record  showed  that 
fewer  errors  were  made  during  the  latter  part  of  .the  week. 

The  most  frequent  errors  were  made  in  the  use  of  the  forms  of 
the  verbs  to  go,  to  see,  to  do,  and  to  be,  and  these  were 
chosen  by  the  class  for  drill  work  for  the  following  week. 

The  drill  work  aroused  a great  deal  of  enthusiasm. 

During  this  week  the  pupils  began  to  cultivate  the  habit 
of  observing  their  own  English.  This  was  followed  by  a drill 

on  corrected  forms.  This  exercise  probably  did  more  to  1m- 


. 


. 


, 


- 


. 

, 


. 


. 


. 


. 


C 


. 

. 

. 

. 


. 


-67- 

prove  their  English  than  the  same  amount  of  time  devoted  to 
a formal  study  of  rules  and  examples. 

The  pupils  were  interested  and  pleased  with  the  results. 
They  asked  to  have  another  Better  English  Week  -the  next  fall. 

College  Pro  j ec  ts . 

The  St.Qlaf  College  Experiment.  - During  the  second  se- 
mester of  the  year  1920-1921  the  writer  used  the  project  method 
in  teaching  a class  of  superior  students  at  St.Olaf  College, 
Northfield,  Minnesota.  These  students  were  selected  on  the 
baBis  of  their  scores  made  in  the  Army  Alpha  Intelligence  Test. 
All  who  made  a score  of  140  in  the  examination  and  all  others 
who  in  the  instructor’s  estimation  were  students  distinctly 
above  average  ability  were  called  from  their  regular  classes 
to  meet  once  a week  for  special  work  in  projects.  The  idea 
was  explained  to  them  that  all  the  work  was  to  depend  upon 
their  own  initiative,  and  that  all  sluggards  would  be  dropped 
at  once.  The  work  was  to  be  purely  voluntary  throughout. 

Later  these  students  were  excused  from  one  regular  recitation, 
the  extra  session  taking  its  place. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  none  of  the  students  were 
dropped  for  everyone  worked  with  truly  unusual  skill  to  do  the 
tasks  in  the  new  section.  The  idea  stimulated  the  efforts  of 
the  other  students  in  the  writer’s  classes  who  were  told  that 
upon  showing  sufficient  increased  ability  they  too  were  eli- 
gible, for  extra  work.  Several  were  transferred  in  later  in 
the  semester. 

In  beginning  the  work  a favorable  attitude  was  secured 


. 


. 

. 


. 

- 


. 

. 


L_, 


. 


, 

. 

. 


. 


. 

. 


--  68- 

by  asking  the  question  "If  you  were  writing  a younger  brother 
or  sister  who  is  coming  here  next  year  what  advice  would  you 
offer  on  the  basis  of  your  experience  as  to  how  he  or  she  could 
succeed  best  as  a student?"  After  some  discussion  it  was  de- 
cided that  there  were  certain  best  methods  of  study  for  the  dif- 
ferent subjects,,  Upon  suggestion  they  decided  that  if  there 
were  any  books  desling  with  this  subject,  certainly  incoming 
freshmen  ought  to  know  of  them  early,  and  they  themselves  ought 
to  read  them  at  once.  Since  these  were  many,  someone  brought 
forward  the  hoped  for  suggestion:  "Why  not  let  some  of  us  read 
one  and  write  an  abstract  of  it  for  the  class?"  Finally  it 
was  decided  that  certain  appointed  members  of  the  class  should 
read  one  such  book  and  at  the  next  meeting  report  to  the  class. 
Some  excellent  abstracts  were  written,  the  two  best  being  on 
Kitson’o  How  to  Use  Your  Mind,  and  McMurre.y*s  How  to  Study. 

These  were  read  not  only  to  the  special  class  but  the  writers, 
or  their  representatives,  read  them  in  the  regular  sections 
with  good  results.  The  reports  were  later  typewritten  and 
placed  in  the  book  of  which  the  abstract  had  been  written,  and 
both  were  then  returned  to  the  library  for  the  use  of  everyone. 
Those  who  did  not  write  abstracts  upon  their  own  suggestion 
wrote  poems  and  short  prose  selections  for  the  literary  supple- 
ment of  the  college  weekly  paper.  Some  half  dozen  of  these 
were  also  sent  to  a prominent  church  paper  and  published  there. 

In  order  to  make  the  work  as  important  for  the  pupils  as 
possible  the  instructor  requested  that  each  student  fill  out 
a card  on  which  was  recorded  such  information  as:  Name  of 

home  town,  subjects  studied  in  college,  chief  interests  out- 


. 

, 


, 

, 


. 


: 


, 


■ 


. 


, 


- 

. 

. 

: 

. 

, 


-69- 

side  of  school,;  aim  as  to  life  work,  etc,  A sample  of  such  a 
card  follows: 

Lola  Steidl  Wheaton,  Minnesota 

1.  English  Composition 

2.  Biology 

30  Religion 

4.  Economics 

5.  Norv/egian. 

I am  interested  in:  Athletics,  nature, 

economics,  good  literature,  and  social  service, 

- Teaching. 

These  blanks  proved  of  great  value  in  suggesting  projects 
for  individuals.  Prospective  ministers  (this  was  a church 
school)  wrote  speeches  which  were  delivered  at  the  meetings 
of  the  college  Prayer  Circle,  the  Y.  W„  C,  A.,  the  Mission 
Board,  and  Luther  League,  One  girl  who  has  planned  to  follow 
her  father  as  missionary  to  Madagascar  wrote  an  excellent 
paper  about  that  island  treating  of  its  history,  its  people, 
missionary  possibilities,  the  geography  of  the  country,  etc,, 
all  of  which  as  she  stated  she  needed  to  know  before  going 
there  in  1925,  Personal  interviews  with  the  instructor  in 
regard  to  reports  were  many  and  were  constantly  sought. 

After  some  weeks  of  such  individual  projects  the  stu- 
dents began  suggesting  others  which  demanded  group  work.  The 
beginning  in  this  larger  field  was  made  by  assigning  the  prob- 


- 


, ■ 


; 


. 


; vc  y • 


« 

. 


, 


, 


. 


-70- 

lems  presented,  or  such  as  were  suggested  by  the  instructor, 
to  groups  of  three  or  four  care  being  exercised  to  include 
at  least  one  student  of  marked  initiative  in  each.  There  was 
no  lack  of  projects  for  the  other  faculty  members  joined  in 
by  suggesting  problems  they  personally  would  like  to  see  solved 
Some  of  these  could  not  be  handled  as  well  by  any  other  method 
as  through  student  initiative  and  effort.  Among  these  were 
the  projects  developed  and  completed  by  the  groups  on:  What 

is  the  present  attitude  of  the  St.  Olaf  College'  students  toward 
the  classic  languages?  - also  what  is  the  reason  for  this,  etc. 
Why  are  the  male  students  decreasing  in  number  in  the  English 
literature  courses?  Is  there,  and  if  so  why  is  there,  a feel- 
ing of  antagonism  between  the  students  and  faculty  at  the  col- 
lege? In  all  these  cases  the  members  of  the  committees  or 
groups  interviewed  their  fellow  students  from  the  various 
classes  in  order  to  get  their  personal  opinions.  The  reports 
submitted  were  joint  products  which  were  written  in  final  form 
only  after  several  meetings  of  the  members  of  these  groups  for 
consultation  with  one  another.  Copies  of  the  accounts  sub- 
mitted were  then  given  to  the  instructors  interested.  Judging 
from  the  use  made  of  the  information  they  contained  by  these 
men  in  speaking  at  faculty  meetings  and  other  group  gather- 
ings the  results  were  beneficial  to  more  than  the  students 
themselves. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  carefully  developed  pro- 
jects of  the  class  was  that  done  by  two  men  who  undertook  to 
provide  a handbook  of  information  for  intelligent  use  of  the 
library.  The  original  purpose  for  it  was  that  the  administra- 


, 


. 


. 


. 

. 

. 


, • - . 


- 


« 


. 

. 

. 

. 


' 


-71- 

tion  of  the  college  should  be  urged  to  furnish  each  freshman 
with  a copy  of  such  a work  the  next  fall.  In  consultation 
with  the  instructor  they  decided  to  include:  accurate  floor 

plans  of  the  library  building  indicating  along  the  walls  the 
class  number  of  the  books  to  be  found  on  the  shelves  there,  a 
set  of  directions  for  correct  use  of  the  card  index  file,  in- 
formation under  suitable  heads  as  to  what  books  (in  a general 
way)  the  library  contains,  facts  about  bound  magazines,  es- 
pecially as  to  for  what  dates  copies  may  be  had,  etc  . , re- 
served books  and  regulations  for  the  use  of  such  works,  and 
other  similar  essential  points.  The  suggestions  accepted 
were  diligently  carried  out,  the  students  meeting  several 
times  with  the  librarian  before  opening  hours  in  order  to 
learn  as  accurately  as  possible  what  they  wanted  to  know. 

After  the  manuscript  report  had  been  finished  it  was 
typewri tten,  the  floor  plans  were  carefully  drawn  in  ink,  and 
the  whole  bound  in  loose  fashion,  A copy  was  presented  to  the 
president  for  his  consideration  and  approval.  He  expressed 
a favorable  opinion  of  the  work  done,  A second  copy  was  giv- 
en the  professor  of  education,  who  used  it  as  an  example  of 
project  work  for  his  classes  in  teachers*  courses. 

The  most  successful  of  the  last  type  of  project  experi- 
mented with  was  the  one  which  might  be  called  MHorthf ield* s 
Display  Windows”.  The  class  organized  themselves  into  groups 
of  five  or  six  whose  purpose  it  should  be  to  visit  the  town 
stores  and  criticise  the  appearance  of  the  windows  of  these 
establishments.  They  were  to  give  suggestions  for  improve- 
ments in  all  cases , comparing  stores  both  different  in  kind 


- ! 


* L. 


j ^ m- ' 

, 


« 


, 


, . 

. 


. 

v , * ||jKi 

. 


. 


. 


, 

. 


. 


- 

; 


*72- 

and  alike.  Their  reports  were  also  to  contain  information  as 
to  just  what  constitutes  a good  window  display.  After  several 
excursions  to  the  various  stores  the  groups  met  for  vigorous 
discussion  of  the  data  secured.  Reports  were  written  and  sub- 
mitted to  the  group  which  selected  the  best  for  the  final 
writing.  The  instructor  offered  to  take  their  work  to  the  edi- 
tor of  the  local  paper  provided  all  considered  them  good 
enough  for  such  use.  This  lent  great  impetus  in  making  the  re- 
ports as  accurate  in  every  way  as  was  possible.  Most  of  them 
were  rewritten  several  times  and  final  typewritten  copies  pre- 
sented, all  voluntary  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  The  copies 
werfe  given  the  newspaper  editor  who  wrote  an  excellent  editor- 
ial on  the  subject  quoting  the  student  suggestions  as  to  the 
improvement  of  the  windows  in  Northfield's  stores. 

Conclusion. 

The  recitation  hour  of  this  special  class  occupied  with 
short  exercises  of  abstracting,  impromptu  speaking,  discus- 
sions of  the  various  projects,  or  listening  to  reports  made 
by  the  several  members.  Free  discussion  on  books  or  magazine 
articles  read  was  encouraged  at  all  times  and  with  good  success 

In  all  some  twenty  odd  projects  were  attempted.  Not  all 
by  any  means  were  successful,  and  some  of  those  which  pro- 
mised greatest  success  dwindled  into  almost  complete  failure. 
There  was  no  trouble  in  securing  cooperation  on  the  part  of 
the  members  of  the  class  even  while  they  were  forced  to  at- 
tend an  extra  session  each  week  for  the  work.  It  was  only 
after  Easter  that  they  were  allowed  one  recitation  cut  from 
their  regular  classes.  Boll  was  called  and  the  few  absences 


- - 

. 


. 


. 

. 


. 

. 

. 


. 


, 


. 

. 


. 

, 


. 

■ - 

. 


. 


-75- 

that  did  occur  were  required  to  be  excused  by  the  deans  in 
the  regular  arrangement. 

The  objections  to  such  a method  of  composition  teaching 
as  were  eyident  at  the  close  of  the  trial  made  by  the  writer 
at  St.  Olaf  College  are: 

1.  There  was  not  enough  real  work  on  the  part  of  some 
of  the  pupils, 

2.  Too  few  of  the  projects  really  represented  positive 
needs  of  the  pupils, 

3.  The  organization  of  the  work  impressed  all  as  being 
too  much  hit  or  miss  in  nature, 

4.  Certain  required  subject  matter  outlined  by  the  de- 
partment was  slighted. 

The  value  of  the  class  for  the  students  and  hence  the 
true  success  of  the  course  is  best  indicated  in  the  following 
discussion  by  a student  who  wrote  a history  of  the  class 
alone.  In  summing  up  her  composition  she  writes:  "Without  a 

doubt  the  members  of  Section  X consider  the  work  successful, 
Everyone  is  enthusiastic  about  what  was  done  - it  was  never 
boresome  but  a pleasure.  The  tasks,  which  at  times  have  been 
very  difficult,  have  been  very  beneficial  to  us.  The  course 
has  helped  us  in  every  phase  of  English  and  has  greatly  aided 
us  in  our  own  individual  line.  It  has  made  us  capable  of 
better  and  more  difficult  accomplishment;  it  has  increased 
our  aptitude  for  the  study  of  English,  literature  and  composi- 
tion; it  has  taught  us  to  see,  observe,  think,  speak,  and 


- 7 4«* 


26 


write  more  than  before  taking  up  the  work  in  Section  X.M 


26,  This  quotation  is  taken  from  an  unpublished  article  by 
Miss  Agnes  Matson. 


- 


-75- 

Bib  liography 

Bagley,  William  C.  - "Projects  and  Purposes  in  Teaching  and 
in  Learning";  Teachers  College  Record  September  1921, 

Bigelow,  G.  I.  - M 

Teachers  College  Record  21:327-336 

Bonsey, Frederick  G,  - "Dangers  and  Difficulties  of  the  Project 
Method;  Teachers  College  Record  September  1921, 

Branora,  Mendel  E,  - The  Project  Method  in  Education  - 
(R.  G,  Badger  <Se  Co.  1919) 

Buck,  Gertrude  - "Recent  Tendencies  in  the  Teaching  of  English 
Composition";  Educational  Review  November  1901. 

Carpenter,  George  R, , Baker,  Franklin  T.,  and  Scott,  Fred  N,  - 
The  Teaching  of  English  (Longmans  Green  & Co.  1913) 

Charters,  J.  A,  - "Problem  Method  of  Teaching  Ideals"; 

English  Journal  9:461-73 

Clark,  A.  B.  - "Experiments  in  Problem  Teaching";  English 
Journal  6:535-38 

Cody,  Frank  W,  - "The  Laboratory  Method  at  Middleburg  College" 
English  Journal  Vol,  4-page  124. 


-76- 

> ■ • 

Colvin,  So  S.  - An  Introduction  to  High  School  Teaching 
(MacMillan  1919), 

Cook,  E.  C,  - "Experiments  in  the  Teaching  of  College  English"  ; 
Teachers  College  Record  19:131-146. 

Courtis,  Stuart  A.  - "Teaching  Through  The  Use  of  Projects  or 
Purposeful  Acts";  Teachers  College  Record  21; 139-149, 

Davis,  William  H.  - "The  Teaching  of  English  Composition: 

Its  Present  Status";  English  Journal  May  1917-Vol.6, 
page  235. 

Earle,  Samuel  C.  - "English  Courses  in  the  Small  Colleges"; 
English  Journal  Vol.3  page  422, 

Gerrish,  Carolyn  M,  - " 

Educa.  Review  Vol.  49  page  128, 

Glaser,  Emma  - "Eighth  Grade  Composition  by  Project"; 

English  Journal  November,  1921. 

Hatfield,  W.  W.  - "Editorial";  English  Journal  October  1920, 
Vol.  9 page  476.  Business  English  Projects  (MacMillan  1921 ) 

Harrington,  H.F.  -"Teaching  Journalism  in  a Natural  Setting"; 
Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,  Vol.  5 
page  198,  April  1919. 


-77 


Hatch,  F..  W.  - "Student  Reactions  to  the  Project  Method"; 

Teachers  College  Record  September  1921. 

_ * "Teaching  Modern  History  by  the  Project  Method" 
Teachers  College  Record  November  1920. 

Herring,  John  P.  - "Criteria  of  the  Project";  Teachers  College 
Record  September  1921. 

Hinkley,  Mary  A.  - "Motivating  English  Composition";  English 
Journal  Vol.  4 page  266. 

Hodgson,  Elizabeth  • "Orientation  in  English  Composition"; 

English  Journal  Vol.  3 page  233. 

Hosic,  James  P.  - "The  Project  Method";  Teachers  College  Record 
September  1921. 

_ - "Reorganization  of  English  in  Secondary  Schools,*' 

Eulletin  No. 2-1917  Bureau  of  Education. 

- "Outline  of  the  Problem-Project  Method"; 

English  Journal  November  1918. 

- "The  use  of  the  Project  in  the  Field  of  English 
Instruction";  Stevenson  "The  Project  Method  of  Teaching"; 
page  84-85  (MacMillan  1921) 


»?e- 

Kyde,  Marietta  - "Projects  in  Literature  English  Journal”; 

Vol.  7 page  4Q10 

Jackson,  L.  L.  -"Project  Sinning,  etc.";  Industrial  Arte 
Magazine  7:138-139. 

Kilpatrick,  William  H.  * "The  Project  Method";  Teachers  Col- 
lege Bulletin  No.  3-0ctober  12,  1918. 

- "The  Problem- Pro j ec t Attack  in  Organiza- 
tion, Subject-Matter,  and  Teachings";  Proceedings  N.E.A. 
Vol.  56:528-31. 

_ • "Dangers  and  Difficulties,  etc."  - 

Teachers  College  Record  September  1921. 

Lasher,  George  Starr  - "The  Project  Method,  etc.";  Eulletin 
April  1,  1921.  The  Illinois  Association  of  Teachers  of 
English. 

Lull,  H.  G.  - "Project  Problem  Instruction";  School  and  Home 
Education  Vol . 38: 79-82. 

- "What  are  Projects  and  Problems";  Chicago  School 
Journal  Vol. 2: 19-25. 

Marsh,  Alice  Louise  - "Socializing  Influences  in  the  Classroom"; 
English  Journal  Vol.  5 page  89. 


-79* 

McComb,  E.H. Kemper  - "Social  Motives  for  Composition"; 

English  Journal  Vol.  3 page  408o 

McMurry,  Charles  A.  - Teaching  by  Projects.  (MacMillan  Co, 1919) 

Miller,  William  D„,  and  Paul,  Harry  G.  - Practical  English 
Vol  3 (Lyons  and  Carnahan  1922) 

Minor,  Ruby  - "The  Supervision  of  Project  Teaching";  Bulletin 
Emporia  Kansas  State  Normal  School  1918. 

Pattee,  George  K,  - "An  Unusual  Course  in  Composition"; 

English  Journal  Vol. 5 page  549. 

Kapee,  Lewie  W.  - "The  Consolidated  Rural  School  (Scribners  192C  ) 

PiObbins,  Charles  L.  - The  Socialized  Recitation  (Allyn  and 
Bacon  1920 ) . 

Ryffel,  G.  H.  - "Group  Projects  in  Upper-Grade  Composition"; 
English  Journal  June  1921. 

Smith,  Elmer  E.  - "The  Advance  Movement  in  English";  English 
Journal  Vol  6.  page  12. 

Snedden,  David  - "The  Project  as  a Teaching  Unit";  School  and 
Society  4:419-423. 


< ♦ 


-eo- 

St&cy,  Mabel  M.  -"Practical  Experiments  in  Oral  English  in  the 
High  School*1;  Bulletin  April  1,  1922,  The  Illinois  Asso- 
ciation of  Teachers  of  English, 

Stevenson,  J.  A.  - The  Project  Method  of  Teaching  ( MacMillan 

1921), 

— - "The  Project  in  Science  Teaching”;  School 

Science  and  Mathematics  19:50-65, 

. _ _ - "The  Project  and  the  Curriculum”;  School 

and  Home  Education  58:146-151, 

- "Projects  and  Problems";  School  and  Home 

Education  38:209-215. 

Stimson,  H.  V/,  - Vocational  Agricultural  Education  by  Horne 
Projects  (MacMillan  1919), 

Walker,  F.  I.  -"Laboratory  System  In  English";  English  Journal 
Vol.6  page  445. 

Warren,  Minetta  L.  - "A  Project  for  the  Entire  Term";  Journal 
of  Educational  Methods  September  1921, 

Woodhull,  John  F,  - "The  Project  Method  in  the  Teaching  of 
Science";  School  and  Society  8:41-44, 


